* ' . «r».

v

iC

xr^

\

^.

.sa§«^-

^:^K- - %,

.>■ '

i

I

A

//•

-<^^

-^1 ''^^- '^

\^,

^

;^.r"^

(T^

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

LIBRARY

SPECIAL COLLECTIONS

s 1 ei8

wp i

LiiixSUHE ROOlKl

THE

OBSERYER AND RECORD

OF

AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE, AND ART.

VOLUME I.

EDITED BY D. PEIRCE.

PHILADELPHIA:

MERRIHEW AND THOMPSON, PRINTERS No. 7 Carter's Alley.

1839.

TiiEASUHE ROOM

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

Acetic Acid Acetate of Potash Acetous Acid Acetiim Rosatum Acetiim Prophylacticum Acid for engravers Acids Acidifiable Base

- 40

- 40

- 40

- 40

- 40

- 15 40, 134, 149, 150

- 40

Adder, means to remove the effects of

the bite of - - - - - 11 jEther, or Ether - - - - 41 Agglutinants - - - - - 41 Agricultural Chemistry, 1, 30, 44, 61,

75, 94, 104, 122, 132, 149, 162, 179

Albumen 41, 111

Alburnum - - - - 41, 104

Alcohol in Pyroligneous Acid - - 68 Alkalies decomposed by Naphtha - 15

Alkali 41, 150

Alkaline Earths - - - - 41

Alloy, (new) that resists Sulphuric

Acids 119

Alum --.... 41

Alumina - - - - - 41, 94 Analysis of vegetable or animal matter 51 Analysis of vegetable substances, with

apparatus for

- 179,

180

Anemometer

.

41

Animal substances, method

to pre-

serve ....

- 69,

136

Anthers of plants

-

107

Antimony . . .

-

77

Antiseptics ...

.

41

Anthracite Coal used to drive

locomo-

lives - - - .

•

78

Apples and Pears, method of

preserv-

ing - - - -

.

56

^j Apples, hints on preserving

-

84

^> Apple Trees, on raising and planting -

148

-^ "Apricot, proper stock for -

.

54

->Aqua Regia

.

42

t , 'Aqua Secunda -

-

42

Areometer ...

Arsenic - . . -

A.tom - . . -

Attraction

Axle-trees, improvement in

Azote ....

Azure, Egyptian process to form

" 156

77 42 62 69 76 69

Barium - . . - Barometer, remarks on - - Barometer, cheap mode of manufactur

ing one Barytes .... Bath, description of a vapor fumigation

or shower - . . . _ Bathing, sea, where beneficial, and

where injurious . . . . Beets, culture of, in Lombardy - Beets, new process to extract sugar from Beet Sugar . . . . . Beet Root, Rutabaga and hand-drill to

plant seed . . . . .

Beef and Pork, process to preserve Belles Lettres . . . . . Beta - - - . .

Bice ---...

Bird Lime - - . . .

Birds, swiftness of - Bismuth ---,.. Bitter Principle . . . .

Blossom Buds, transplanting Boiling, or ebullition, point of, in several

liquids . - - - . .

Borax for the blow-pipe - - . Boron ---... Brass ornaments, method to clean Bricks, machine for making Bronzing ......

Bronze, of the ancients . . . Brunonian system of medicine . Budding, Knight's method - Burning Glass, Sir Isaac Newton's

78 43

69

58

28

10 5 6 6

36

61

59

59

59

122

127

77

126

54

- 59

- 70

- 77

- 70

- 129

- 60

- 70 60, 65

■ 67

- 70

IV.

CONTENTS.

Burns, remedy for

Butler Pot, a description of

Cabbages, method to preserve Cables, Elastic Calcination

- 87

- 37

- 70

- 127

- 70

- 70 71,107

- 71

- 132

- 127 9

71,122

- 71

- 71 71.76

- 94

- 71

- 94

- 180

- 71 ■ 72 . 85

- 72

- 72

- 72

- 91

72, 85, 86, 87, 119 62 72,

- 73

- 73 70, 73

ves-

- 143

Caloric

Calyx

Camphoric Acid

Camphor -

Canals

Cancer, process to cure

Caoutchouc

Capilliary Tube

Capsule

Carbon

Carbonate of Lime

Carbonates - . -

Carbonic Acid . - -

Carbonic Acid Gas

Carniine - - - -

Carton, or Cartoon

Carpels, hints upon cleaning

Ca.<e-hardening

Casting . . - -

Calenaria - - -

Cattle, soiling experiments on

Cements ...

Centrifugal force

Centripetal force

Ceruse, or Ceruss

Charcoal, properties of

Charcoal manufactured sels - . -

Chemistry ... - . 73

Chemical attraction - - - - 48 Chilblains, Dr. Graves on - - - 92 Chilblains, Dr. Hunter on - - - 93 Chilblains cured by balsam copaiba - 102 Children, proper food for - - - 120

Chlorine 76

Chord ...... 73

Chrysalis, or Aurelia - - - - 73

Chyle 73

Clay 73

Cobalt 77

Cochineal - - - - - 73

Cohesion .... 48, 62, 73

Color, valuable, obtained from coffee

berries ...--- 161 Combustion - - - - 73, 94 Concentric - - ■ - - 73

Cone ...--- 73

Conic Sections - - - - - 73 Convex -..--- 73

Copal 73

Copper .----- 77

Corn, Chinese 29

Corn, Early, or Canada - - - 84

close

Corn, hints on feeding it to animals

Corns, Dr. Hunter on

Corolla

Correction

Cortical Layers

Corrosion

Cotyledons

Cranberry

Crataegus -

Crayon

Creosote for deafness

Creosote, process to make

(/roup ...

Crutch, Spring,

Cube

Cycloid ...

Cylinder -

Deafness, Acetous Ether useful for Defaclo - - - . .

Deliae, or Delian Problem - Demi Culverin . . - - Deneb ..... Density of Bodies ... Deodand - . - - . Deson Tort Demesn Dicotyledonous ...

Dogs, distemper in - Drawing, Isomeirical method of Drawing, Photogenic Drawing, description of photogenic, Duple ..... Diirameter ....

Dye, Green Schweinfurt, .process

make ....

Dying, principles of, and coloring m ter . . . . -

to

at

84

101

107

74

96

74

107

99

74

74

79

161

88

147

74

74

74

118 89 89 89 89 89 89 89

108

13

7

158

159 89 89

175

19

Earths, description of 102, 151, 152, 162 Ertropiuni - - - - - 89

Ectype 90

Effluvium 90

Eggs, method of preserving - - 119 Electricity ... 48, 57, 75

Electro-magnetism used to separate sil- ver from other substances Elements of matter, particularly those found in vegetables, and laws of their combination and arrangements Empyreuma .....

Emulsion --.-.. Enceinte ......

Endemic, or endemical diseases - Engraving, Lizar's method of - Epidermis .....

Epigraphe .....

Epistaxis, Dr. Graves on - Equilibrium .....

Equiangular .....

118

48 90 90 90 90 6 95 90 99 90 90

CONTENTS.

V.

Equidifferent ....

.

90

Gastric Juice . . . -

.

139

Equilateral ....

.

90

Gelatine . - . . -

-

139

Equilateral Hyperbola

-

90

Gelatinous ....

-

139

Errhines .....

.

90

Gem . . . . -

-

139

Error

.

90

Geometry - - -

-

139

Erucca .....

.

90

Germination ....

-

139

Escalade - - . . .

.

90

Gilding, false, and whitewashing

, pro-

Estreat

.

90

cess employed in India -

15,

136

Estrepement ....

.

90

Gilding described

-

140

Etching

.

90

Glass, method to clean it -

-

102

Ethics

.

91

Gluten,

122,

140

Ethmoidal ....

.

91

Gneiss - - - - -

-

140

Elhopoeia .....

.

91

Gnomen - - . - ■

-

140

Extract, (or extractive principle)

-

123

Gold, imitation of - - -

.

11

Eye Bath, description of -

-

160

Grafting, or graffing -

-

140

Granite .... -

-

140

Fasts

.

121

Graphites . . . - -

-

140

Febrifuge .....

.

9

Gravimeter ....

-

140

Fermentation ....

-

121

Gravity .....

-

141

Fermentation, observations on, by M.

Gravity, specific

-

141

Gay Lussac - - - .

.

149

Graustein - - - - ■

-

141

Filtration .....

-

122

Grapes, conserves of -

.

145

Filtering Stone, method of applying

.

130

Gravitation, effects of, on vegetation -

62

Filtering Machine, a cheap and valuable

Gregorean year -

•

141

one .....

.

175

Gum . . . -

. 109,

141

Files and rasps made of clay

.

160

Gum elastic

-

122

Fire Extinguisher

.

112

Gunter's Chain

141

Fire-place improved -

.

98

Gypsum . - . -

-

141

Flies, green, method to destroy -

-

56

Flowers of plants

-

107

Hams and beef, how to preserve

-

61

Flux for the bbwpipe, a valuable one

.

175

Hams, hints respecting

.

84

Fly, wheat, or Hessian

.

126

Harvest, best drink in

•

6

Freezing, at a distance

-

53

Heat

63, 64

Friction in medicine - - -

.

112

Hedges, thorn, remarks on

.

38

Frozen branches of peach and nectarine

Hedges, underdraining

•

144

trees restored by watering

-

54

Haemorrhage . - . ■

-

155

Frost

.

121

Hermetical seal -

-

155

Frost counteracted - - -

.

112

Hexagon - - - .

.

155

Fruit trees, to propagate, by abscis-

Homicide ....

.

155

sion - . - - . 14,

135

Hornblende

.

155

Fruit, how to preserve

-

119

Horse power - - -

.

165

Fruit preserved by carbonic acid gas

-

191

Horse shoe, an improved one

-

37

Fruit room, description of one -

-

54

Horses, rules for ascertaining their ages

Fruit trees, principles to be observed

in

by the inspection of their leetli

-

38

pruning and training

-

137

Horses, best method of feeding

, with

Fruit trees, remarks on propagating

-

119

hay ....

-

67

Fuel, description of several kinds of

.

114

Hot-beds, directions for covering the

Fuel, remarks on and combustion of

-

84

soil in -

-

55

Functions, vital, laws of -

-

7

Hot-house, description of one

-

136

Hydraulics

-

155

Galbaniim - - - .

.

139

Hydraulic ram, improvement in •

.

29

Galenic

-

139

Hydrophobia, cure for

-

78

Gall, to prepare for artists -

-

148

Hydrocarbonates

.

156

Galvanism - - . _

-

139

Hydrodynamics

-

156

Gas, plan to prevent the escape of, fro

m

Hydrogen ....

76,

156

barrels and other vessels -

.

70

Hydrogen gas -

.

156

Gas described ....

.

139

Hydrogen flame, rendered luminc

)US -

191

Gas, from pyroligneous acid

.

176

Hydrogenized sulphurets -

.

156

Gas, pure hydrogen, inodorous -

-

176

Hydrography -

■

156

CONTENTS.

Hydrometer and areometer Hydro-oxides - Hydrostatics Hydrosulphurets Hygrometer Hyperbola

Hyperbolic cylindroid Hyperbolic line Hypothenuse -

Ice, at door steps, hints respecting

Impetigo, burdock in -

Impetus ......

Incline plane - - . . . Incurvation . . . . .

Indigo 125,

Induction ---.-. Inertia, of matter - . _ .

Inflection -

Infusion, .--.-. Ink, Indian, manner of making - Ink, lithographic, .... Ink, indelible, for quill or rhetallic pens

Inks, described - - . . 164, Ink stains, how to remove -

Inolithus

Inscribe --..-. Insolation ------

Instruments, mathematical - - - Insurance ------

Integer --.-_- Internal --.--. Intersection - - - ■ - Invention ------

Involution - - . . _

Iodine, in mineral waters - - . Iodine, medical properties of - - Iodine, described - . . . Ipecacuanha, process to make sirup of Iridium, described - - - -

Iron, to prevent, from rusting

Iron, medical properties of -

Iron, action of sulphur on -

Iron, soft, that will cut hardened steel -

Iron bars, phenomena observed in proving

Iron improved by manganese

Iron, properties of - - . 77,

Irritability - - - . .

Irritation, counter - - _ -

Ivory, hints on whitening - . -

Ivory, process to whiten

Ivory, described - - - -

Ivory black

Japanning, process of - - -

Jatropha, the cassada plant

Jelly, in chemistry - - - _

Joint-tenants, (in law) - - .

Jointure, (in law) - - - -

156 156 156 157 157 158 158 158 158

85 89 164 164 164 153 164 164 164 164 6 15 56 165 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 167 167 167 3 130 167 169 169 102 130 131 131 131 135 170 174 174 85 131 174 175

182 184 184 185 185

Judgments, (in law) - - - . 185

Jiiglans, (in botany) - - - . 186

Jiiniperus, (in botany) - _ . 186

Justification, (in law) ... 186

Lamp, Gurney's oxy-oil - - - 113

Lead, -...-. 77

Leather, patent substitute for - - 3

Light 48

Light and heat, efi'ects of, on vegetation 106

Machinery, increase of velocity in - 10 Machine, for boot and shoe makers - 28 Machine, thrashing, Lee's described - 67 Machinery for moving goods - - 148 Manuscripts, manner to take impres- sions from - . - - - Manganesum - - - - -

Manna --....

Mathematical instruments, improve- ments in - . - . . Matter which influence vegetation, 48 to 95, in article Agricultural Che- mistry .... - 48, &c.

Meat, fresh, how to preserve in winter 84 Mechanical agents, new suggested - 176 Mercury .---.. 77 Meteorology and vegetation, connection

between - ... - 4

Mill, wind, in mechanics, - - 15, 154 Mill, new kind of rubbers suggested - 160 Monocotyledonous . - - - Morus multicaulis, how to preserve in winter ------

Morus multicaulis, white mulberry, silk and silk worms - - . - Morus multicaulis and silk culture Mucilage --.--. Mulberry tree and silk worm

12

77 111

53

108

35

64

81

109

118

Narcotic principle - - - . 125

Needle, injury from the puncture of a - 128 Neuralgia, white hellibore (Veralrtim

album) in . . . . - 88

Nickel 77

Nitrogen, proportion in different varie- ties of wheat . - - - - 5 Notice to subscribers - - . - 192

Oats, Hints on feeding animals with - 84

Oil, fixed 133

Oil, Volatile - - - ' - - 133 Oranges and Lemons raised from cut- tings ------ 34

Oxides, Metallic - - - -151

Oxide in plants - - - - - 152

Oxygen ------ 76

Parenchima - - - - - 96

CONTENTS.

VII.

Pear Trees, process to prevent the bliffh* in .

Peach Trees, on the cultivation of, and prevention of disease in

Peach Trees, early puberty of

Peach Trees, experiments on prunin and training

Pencils, Lithographic .

Phosphorus

Phycotyledonous

Pistils of plants

Pith of wood .

Plants, food for

Plants, their organization — Roots, Trunk, and Branches, their struc- ture— The Epidermis — Cortical and Alburnous parts of Leaves, Flowers, and Seeds — The Chemical Constitu- tion of the organs of plants, and the substances found in them — Mucilagi- nous, Saccharine, Extractive, Resi- nous and Oily Substances, and other Vegetable Compounds, their arrange- ments in the organs of plants, their composition, changes, and uses. Ar- ticle, Agricultural Chemistry, from page 95 to end of volume.

Platinum

Plume

Pollen

Potatoes, Knight's method of culture

Potatoes raised from cuttings .

Potato, curl, process to prevent

Potato, Rohan

Potassium

Potash

Printing, Stereotype, metalographic

Printing, hints on various modes of

Prussic Acid counteracted by cold water

34

35 55

137 10

77 108 107 105 120

77

107

107

53

84

144

102

77

85

10

147

80

Quinine, adulteration in

. 100

Radicle of a plant . . . 107

Rail-Roads, &c. &;c. . . . 127

Rail-ways, limits of speed on . .118

Rasps and Files made of clay . .160

Resin . . . . .132

Rheumatism, to prevent or cure , 34 Rheumatism, inflammatory, treatment of 88

Roof, a new species of . 14, 135

Salt, hints on furnishing animals with 85 Salts, Soluble . . . .152

Sciatica, treatnfent of . . .88

Seed of vegetables . . .107

Seeds, time for sowing different kinds 192 Sheep, remedies for diseases in 12, 24

Sheep, method to cure the diseases of the feet . . . .68

Sheep, Syrian . . .119

Sfieep, stretching in, how to cure . 128 Silk Worm and Silk Manufacture 17, 40 Silk, Cocoons, Silk Worm Eggs, and

Cocoonery .... Silk, suggestions for experiments on

feeding Silk Worms, &c. (fee. Silk Culture .... Silk, M. Road's remarks on bleaching . Silk Manufacture Silver

Sirup and Sugar, from grapes Soda . Sodium Spines

Squinting, remedy for Stains, fruit, removed by salt Starch ,

Stamens

Steam, Engine, Locomotive Steam Engine, new Steel, improved by manganese Strontium Style .

Sub-duple ratio Subscribers, notice to . Sugar, liquid, from apples and pears . Sugar, process of converting beets into,

Barruel's method Sugar, process to convert starch into —

Kirchoff's method . Bullion Lagrange's method Sugar from potato starch, by Dr. Tu-

hiU ..... Sugar ..... Sulphuric or vitriolic acid Sulphur ....

Tables, mahogany, method of polishing Tannin ....

Tendrils ....

Tetanus cured by extreme external cold 100 Timber, proper time to cut . . 6

Timber, on means to preserve it 42, 192 Tin . . . . .77

Tomato pies. . . . .29

Tools, method to temper steel edge . 1 1 Transferring from stone to paper . 13

Tracheae .... 104

Tree, acacia . . . .68

Trees, remarks on planting . . 141

Turnips, on preserving . . 67

Tupentine, on applying it to clothes . 85

Varnishes, process to make . . 26

Vegetation, T. A. Knight's Theory of . 49 Vegetables, method of producing new

varieties of . . . . 128

Vegetables, the effects of temperature

in preserving . . .130

79

64

82 177 . 84 . 77 . 142 94, 150 . 78 . 105 . 87 . 118

: 109

. 107 . 33 . 97 . 135

. 78 . 107 . 89 . 192 145

20

21

22

23

110

41

76

118 123 105

vm.

CONTENTS.

Vegetation, the general powers which influence it — Gravitation — Cohesion — ChemicalAttraction— Heat— Light —Electricity— Ponderable Substances — Elements of Matter, particularly those found in Vegetables — Laws of their Combinations and Arrange ments ; from page 48 to 95, in arti cle Agricultural Chemistry.

Vegetable substances, the most essen tial constituents of . 179, 180, 181

Vines, method of training

Vinegar and wine rendered transparent

Vinegar used to counteract lime

Walls, method to preserve Wasps, method to destroy Water, salt or hard, how prepared fo

washing Watches, valuable metal for pivots to

move in . Water, components of

182 52 56

85

192 56

66

102 94

Wax . . . . .126

Wheat, remarks on smut . .11

Wheat, Batchelor's experiments on

smut in . . . . 186

Wheat, blight in . . 13, 25

Wheat, experiments on, for seed . 91

Wheat, kiln dried, for seed . . 98

Wheels, apparatus to prevent accidents

in carriages . . . .50

Wheels, remarks upon the form of teeth

or cogs of . . . . 189

White-wash, process to make, &c. 15, 48 Whooping cough, remedy for . 87, 101

Wires, method to draw extremely fine 42 Wood and other fuel, remarks on . 84 Wood, remarks on the decay of, &c.

42, 136, 192 Woody fibre . . . .134

Zinc . . . . .77

Zoological specimens, method to pre- serve . . . .43

OBSERYER AND RECORD

OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE, AND ART.

EDITED BY D. PEIRCE.

Wo. 1.]

Philadelphia, Monday, October 1, 1S3S.

[Vol. I.

The object of this paper is to concentrate and preserve, in a form suitable for future reference, the most useful and interesting articles on the aforesaid subjects. Each num- ber will contain sixteen octavo pages, printed on good paper, and when a suffi- cient amount is published to form a volume of convenient size, an alphabetical table of contents will be published and forwarded to subscribers, in order for binding. The first number, (of which this forms a part,) shows the general plan of the work.

Published monthly, for one dollar a year, payable in advance; six copies to the same address for five dollars. Q3^ Letters may be addres.>^ed to the Editor, in every instance post paid, No. 31 Cherry street.

From Sir Humphrey Davy's Elements of Agrie\iUun(l Chemistry.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Agricultural Chemistry has for its objects all those changes in the arrange- ments of matter connected with the growth and nourishment of plants ; the compara- tive values of their produce as food ; the constitution of soils ; the manner in which lands are enriched by manure, or rendered fertile by the different processes of culti- vation. Inquiries of such a nature cannot but be interesting and important, both to the theoretical agriculturalist and to the practical farmer. To the first, they are necessary in supplying most of the funda- mental principles on which the theory of the art depends. To the second, tliey are useful in affording simple and easy experi- ments for directing his labours, ancl for enabling him to pursue a certain and sys- tematic plan of improvement. It is scarce- ly possible to enter upon any investigation in agriculture without finding it connected, more or less, with doctrines or elucida- tions derived from chemistry.

If land be unproductive, and a system of ameliorating it is to be attempted, the sure method of obtaining the object is by determining the cause of its sterility, which must necessarily depend upon some defect in the constitution of the soil, which may be easily discovered by chemical analysis.

Some lands of good appaient texture are yet sterile in a high degree ; and com- mon observation and common practice afiord no means of ascertaining the cause, 1

or of removing the effect. The applica- tion of chemical tests in such cases is ob- vious ; for the soil must contain some noxious principle which may be easily discovered, and probably easily destroyed.

Are any of the salts of iron present ? Ihey may be decomposed by lime. Is there an excess of siliceous sand ? the sys- tem of improvement must depend op. the application of clay and calcareou? matter. Is there a defect of calcareous matter ? the remedy^ is obvious. Is an excess of vege- table matter indicated ? it may be re- moved by liming, paring, and burning. Is there a deficiency of vegetable matter ? it is to be supplied by manure.

A question concerning the different kinds of limestone to be employed in cul- tivation often occurs. To determine this fully in tlie common way of experience, would demand a considerable time, per- haps some years, and trials which might be injinious to crops; but by simple che- mical tests the nature of a limestone is dis- covered in a few minutes; and the fitness of its application, whether as a manure for difierent soils, or as a cement, '^deter- mined.

Peat eartli of a cotain consistence and composition, is an exf'eilent manure; but there are some varieties of peats which contain so large a quantity of ferruginous matter as to be absolutely poisonous to j)lants. Nothing can be more simple than the chemical operation for determining the nature, and the probable uses of a sub- stance of this kind.

There has been tio (|uestipn on which

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

more difference of opinion has existed than that of the state in Avhich manure ought to be ploufj;hed into the land; whe- ther recent, or when it has gone through the process of fermentation ?' and this question is still a subject of discussion; but whoever will refer to the simplest princi- ples of chemistry cannot entertain a doubt on the subject.

As soon as dung begins to decompose it throws off its volatile parts, which are the most volatile and most efficient. Dung which has fermented, so as to become a mere soft cohesive mass, has generally lost from one third to one half of its most useful constituent elements. It evidently should be applied as soon as fermentation begins, that it may exert its full action upon the plant, and lose none of its nutri- tive powers.

It would be easy to adduce a multitude of other instances of the same kind; but sufficient I trust has been said to prove that the connection of chemistry with agriculture is not founded on mere vague speculation, but that it offers principles which ought to be understood and fol- lowed, and which in their progression and ultimate results, can hardly fail to be highly beneficial to the community.

A view of the objects in this course of lectures, and of the manner in which they are to be treated, will not, I hope, be con- sidered as an imj^roper introduction. It will inform you what you are to expect; it will afford a general idea of the connec- tion of the different parts of the subject, and of their relative importance; it will enable me to give som.e historical details of the progress of this branch of know- ledge, and to reasf)n from what has been ascertained concerning what remains to be investigated and discovered.

The phenomena of vegetation must be considered as an important branch of the science of organized nature; but though exalted above inorganic matter, vegetables are yet in a great measure dependant for their existence upon its^ laws. They i-e- ceive their nourishment from the external elements; they assimilate it by means of peculiar organs: and it is by examining their j:)hysical and chemical constitution, and the substances and powers which act upon them, and the modifications which they undergo, that the sci 'utific princi-

ples of agricultural chemistry are ob- tained.

According to these ideas, it is evident that the study ought to be commenced by some general inquiries into the composi- tion and nature of material bodies, and the laws of their changes.

The surface of the earth, the atmo- sphere, and the water deposited from it, must, either together or separately, af- ford all the principles concerned in vege- tation; and it is only by examining the chemical nature of these principles, that we are capable of discovering what is the food of plants, and the manner in which this food is supplied and prepared for their nourishment.

The principles of the constitution of bodies consequently, will form the first object of our consideration.

By methods of analysis dependent upon chemical and electrical instruments dis- covered in late times, it has been ascer- tained, that all the varieties of material substances may be resolved into a compa- ratively small number of bodies, which, as they are not capable of being decom- pounded, are considered in^ the pre- sent state of chemical knowledge as ele- ments.

The bodies incapable of decomposition at present known, are forty-seven. Of these, thirty-eight are metals; six are in- flammable bodies; and three substances which unite with metals and inflammable bodies, and form with them acids, alka- lies, earths, or other analagous compounds.

The chemical elements acted upon by attractive powers combine in different aggregates.

In their simpler combinations, they produce various crystaline substances, dis- tinguished b}' the regularity of their forms. In more complicated arrangements they constitute the varieties of vegetable and animal substances, bear the higher charac- ter of organization, and are rendered sub- servient to the purposes of life. And by the influence of heat, light, and electrical jToweis, there is a constant series of changes; matter assumes new forms; the dcsliuction of one order of beings tends to the conservation of another; solution and consolidation, decay and renovation, are connected; and wliilst the parts of the svstem continue in a state of fluctuation

PATENT SUBSTITUTE FOR LEATHER.

and change, the order and harmony of the whole remain unalterable.

After a general view has been taken of the nature of the elements, and of the principles of chemical changes, the next object will be the structure and constitu- tion of plants. In all j)lants there exists a system of tubes or vessel?, which in one extremity terminate in roots, and at the other in leaves. It is by the capillary action of the roots that the fluid matter is taken up from the soil. The sap in pass- ing upwards becomes denser, and more fitted to deposited solid matter: it is modi- fied by exposure to heat, light, and air in the leaves; descends through the bark; in its progress produces new organized mat- ter; and is thus in its vernal and autumnal flow, the cause of the formation of nevV parts, and of the more perfect evclution of parts already formed.

In this part of the inquiry, 1 ^tall en- deavour to connect together in a general view, the observations of the mostenlight-

From Uie Philosopliical Magazine. IODINE IN MINERAL WATERS.

Dr. Cantu has proved the existence of Iodine, in the state of hydriodate, in the sulphurous mineral waters of Castelnouve d'Asli. He infers, as a probability, from his experiments, that iodine is a consti- tuent part of all sulphurous waters which contain muriates; and to this he attributes the medical efllcacy of these waters in diseases of the glandulnr and lymphatic systems. {Giornale di Fisica.) — Dublin Phil. Journ.

Fi-om the same. ACCOUNT OP PATENT SUBSTITUTE FOR LEATHER, INV'ENTED BY MR. THOMAS HANCOCK.

In a former patent, Mr. Hancock pro- posed to form a substitute for leather, by depositing caoutchouc in a fluid state, upon loose fibres of wool, cotton, or flax, felted or matted together. In the present patent, he uses a woven cloth, made of

ened philosophers who have studied the i wool, cotton, or flax. When this cloth is

physiology of vegetation

Those of Grew, Malpighi, Sennebier, Darwin, and above all, of Mr. Knight. He is the latest inquirer into these inter- esting subjects, and his labours have tended

stretched upon a flat surface, the composi- tion t ) be presently described is sjji-ead over it. Above the composition, a uni- form layer of wadding, made of cotton, flax, wool, silk, or hair, is to be laid, and

most to illustrate this part of the economy i the whole pressed between a pair of rollers, of nature. i in order to force the fluitl composition

The chemical composition of plants has . among the fibres. It is then to be dried within the last ten 3'ears, been ehicidated 'at a temperature not exceeding 80° or 90° by the experiments of a numbei' of chemi- 1 of Fahrenheit.

cal philosophers, both in this and in other Mr. Hancock has given us the following countries; and it forms a beautiful part of compositions to be used according to cir- general chemistry; it is too extensive to 1 cumstances:

be treatetl of minutely; but it will be ne- 1 First composition. Dissolve two

cessary to dwell upon such parts of it as pounds of caoutchouc in one gallon of oil afford practical inferences. | of turpentine and highly rectilied coal tar.

If the organs of plants be submitted to \ Add six ounces of black resin, two pounds chemical analysis, it is found that their i of strong glue size, and one pound of yel- almost infinite diversity of form, depends | low ochre, whitening or powdered pum- upon different arrangements and combina- tions of a very few of the elements; sel- dom more than seven or eisht belons; to them, and three constitute the greatest part of their organized matter; and ac- cording to the manner in which these ele- ments are disposed, arise the different pro- perties of the products of vegetation, whether employed as food, or for other purposes and wants of life.

( To be continued.)

ice.

Second cojnposition. — Dissolve 1 1-2 pounds of caoutchouc as before, and hav- ing melted and mixed one pound of glue size and i-esin in a steam bath, add the dis- solved caoutchouc to it, stirrino; while mixing them. The wb.ole must then be strained through a sieve.

The first of the above compositions must be used when a cheap and stiff" sub- stance is required, and the proportions may be one-third whitening or glue; but

TROPICAL NIGHTS.

when a strong and pliant substance is I wanted, the ^cc^nof composition, in which the caoutchouc predominates, is to be pre- ferred,

A suhstance like leather may be formed by joining togetlier several thicknesses before they are dry. When leather for the soles of shoes is required, JNJr. Han cock jjroposes to use as the groundwork, wool and cotton in equal quantities. For pipes, straps, &c., he proposes chopped hemp and cotton or flax; and when smooth surfaces are wanted, the substance must be pressed between polished metallic plates. — Edinburgh Journ, of Science. — -^ —

From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

CONNECTION BETWEEN METEOROLOGY

AND VEGETATION.

JNI. Bousingault has addressed a note to the Jlcadernie des Sciences of Paris, which is entitled Comparative examination of the iMel ear oloiiical circumstances under which our common grains, [the Cerealia) Turkey-wheat, maize, and potatoes, ve- getate at the Equator, and in tlie tem- perate zone. — In this examination the autb.or has first made investigations into the lime which elapses between the first springing of the plant and its full maturi- ty. He then determined the temperature of the space of time which separates these two extreme epochs of vegetable life. By comparing tliese data concerning any given ])lant which is cultivated both in Europe and America, he arrives at this curious re- sult; that the number of days that sep- arates the commencement of vegetation from its maturity, is more considerable in ])roportion as the mean temperature, under the influence of which the plant grows, is less; the duration of th.e vegetation will be equal, however different the climate may be, if tliis temperature is identical in the two places; and it will be shorter or long- er according as the mean heat of the pe- riod of time necessary for the accomplish- ment of the vegetatioQ, is itself greater or less, in other words, the duration of the vegetation appears to be in the inverse ratio of the mean temperatures. So that if you multiply the number of days dur- ing which any given plant vegetates in these distinct climates^ by the mean tem- perature of the actual period of its vege- tation, you will obtain numbers which are

very nearly equal. This result is not only remarble, inasmuch as it seems to indicate that, under all climates the same annual plant receives, in the course of its exist- ence, an equal quantity of heat; but it leads also to a practical result, in enabling us to decide upon the possibility of intro- tducing any particular vegetable into a country as soon as we know the mean temperature of the month there. —

1 From the same.

TROPICAL NIGHTS.

By the by, I travelled by night to avoid the mid-day vertical sun, and I now from experience, advise my friends never to follow my example. No evaporation takes place, you perspire copiously, with which, and the excessive dew, your clothes get saturated, hanging on you like wet leather, impeding every motion, and thus increasing your fatigue. Your breathing is less free, and you get an occasional puff of cold damp air, which instead of refresh- ing, only adds to your discomfort; in short, you become completely oppressed. But in the sun, what a change; evapora- tion rapidly progresses, your dress acts like a wine-cooler, you get rid of the oppressive sense of heat, become stimulated, and march on excessively relieved. One point however must never be neglected, to keep a considerable thickness of clothing upon your head, you may then bid defiance to mere heat. On the subject of tropical nights, it occurs to me that there is a rather singular affection to which the human frame is subject, and several medical gen- tlenien to whom I have spoken, seem to me to entertain rather erroneous views as to its origin. 1 allude to what is vulgarly called inoon-struck. Dr. Wells, in his admirable Essay on Dew, has shown that a niutual interchange of radiated heat takes j)lace, in ordinary circumstances, between all bodies, and that on this depends the preservation of temperature. On brilliant moonlight and other cloudless nights, how- ever, all exposed bodies do not receive a quantity equal to that which they shed forth. The want of clouds prevents them receiving that vast quantity which would otherwise be shot back fron the sky in consequence; equality of temperature is not maintained. All those bodies which lie favourably, some more than others, be-

CULTURE OF BEETS IN LOMBARDY.

come much cooled down, and, among other efTects, moisture is depositee! from the lit- tle portion of air, cooled by contact in the immediate vicinity of the bodies. The human body, when exposed offers no ex- ception to the law, and if the circumstanlces of the case are such as to preclude tiie generation copiously of animal heat, the consequences are very serious; persons who incauliously sleep, sentries on duty, &c. become occasionally even victims. When attentively examined in this state, they seem like icicles, cold and wet, shrunk and livid, all the blood has left the super- ficial vessels, and become engorsied in the large veinous trunks; congestion takes place in the brain, producing a state pre- cisely similar to that from apoplexy, which occurs in peisons perishing in snow storms, and 1 have known cases where apoplectic condition has termina- ted in paralysis either of the face or of the limbs, and in one instance in death. When interrogated, those who have suffered slightly from it state the consciousness of extreme cold against which they could not make head, then insensibility to cold, and afterwards a drowsiness, which grad- ually overpowered them: — a descriplion which tallies exactly with that of Banks and Solander, in relation to their suffering from excessive cold in South America, and to which the latter nearly fell a victim The means, also, of recovering them is precisely similar, a gradual approach to natural temperature, with a cautious use of stimulants. Officers on night duty in India, leaving their warm quarters on pickets, Jiave sometimes suffered similarly from the carrying power of the damp air, in which they have been forced to re- main for some time, serious illnesses have been entailed on them. May not this be looked upon as a primary, or at least as an auxiliary agent in the production of agues, from its tendency to lower the ani mal powers?

From the same. ON THE PROPORTION OF NITROGEN IN DIF- FERENT VARIETIES OP WHEAT. BY M. PATAN.

The Philomathic Society of Paris hav- ing been consulted by the Agricultural Society of La Marne, concerning the quality of four different kinds of wheat

which are cultivated in the same manner and on the same lands. M. Payan explain- ed to the society that he had discovered very considerable differences in the pro- portions of the nitrogenous matter, as well as in the distribution of that substance in relation to the mass of perisperm or \\\t integument of the seed. The maximum of gluten and of two other nitrogenous matteis in the varieties which were of moderate hardness, is concentrated in the parts which adhere to the integuments or which approach it the most ; whilst in the centre of the grain the nitrogenous sub- stances are in the smallest proportion.

The author has also determined the re- lation between the weight of the external integument, and that of the mass of the grain; and finally, he has ascertained that between the most nitrogenous grains, and those which are least so, the proportion of nitrogen varies from 0.022 to 0.029. The varieties thus experimented upon were the Polish wheat, the March wheat, the wheat de. la Trinite and de pays. M. Payan being desirous of investigating, if still greater differences could be found in the hardest corns, and those which are the softest, subjected to analysis the wheat of Taganrock, of Odessa, and of Poland, on tlie one hand, and the whitest wheats that are employed in La Mennerie of Paris on the other; and he found that the former contained from 0.029 to 0.031 of nitrogen, whilst the others only gave from 0.019 to 0.020. M. Pay en adds, that he means to continue these researches on the maxima and minima of nitrogen, by pro- curing samples of the hardest corns of southern countries, and the softest that are raised in the northern regions.

Fi'om the Journal of Uie Franklin Institute. CULTURE OF BEETS IN LOMBARDY.

There have been some remarkable pe- culiarities in the cultivation of sugar beets in this country during the three past years. Its light and sandy soil suits them well, if the temperature, which under- goes a sudden change on the first rains, do not loo long protract the sowing. Exces- sive droughts are also injurious, causing the portion of the root which is above the ground, to become green ?ind acrid. Irri- gations, so easily made in this country, and so favourable to rice, wheat and corn,

MANNER OF .AIAKING INDIAN INK.

injure beets, because they submerge the plants and prevent the iintolding of the leaves. To remedy these inconveniences, M. Pagen has advised the sowing of the seeds in beds, and then transplanting the roots in raised beds enriched with good fine manure, immediately after the early rains. The roots will soon strike into this deep soil, and will be less exposed above ground. Water may be conveyed into the furrows between the beds without any risk of submerging the plants, and the produce will be more certain. Last year, the temperature and moisture being unu- sually favourable, beets vrere sown early with the drill, and the gathering was abundant. The juice marked 5° on Baume's aerometer, after being clarified. The ravv sugar had a more agreeable taste, and the molasses was very sensibly less acrid than similar products in the north of France.

A large portion of lai:d having been covered with the alluvial sands of the Adda, the beets sown upon it were unu- sually flourishing, but the juice was sul- phurous, and furnished but little sugar. — .Bulletin d'Encour. Mai.

From ttie same. NEW PilOCESS OF EXTRACTING SUGAR FROM BEETS. BY M. SCHUZENBACH OF CARLSRUHE.

This process consists in converting the beets into powder or dry flour, by a me- thod which operates at once upon large masses and at little expense. The sugar is extracled from this farina, by a very small quantity of water, which comes out clear and limpid, and so concentrated, that in order to obtain a given quantity of su- gar, only two or three times its weight is necessary of this concentrated and limpid fluid. The subsequent manijudation, cr^'s- talization, <§'C., are thereby facilitated. The greatest quantity of crystalized mai- ler contained in the beet, is thus also pro- cured, and but little molasses produced.

The author asserts that the expense by this method, is much less than by that commonly pursued, and that his apparatus occupies but little room. — Jh.

From Uie same. BEET SUGAR.

It appears to have been proved by M. Parrayon, beet sugar manufacturer at

Merignies, France, that by adding diluted sulphuric acid to the pulp, as mucii juice can be obtained by two cold presses as by hot ])ressure; and that an}- injurious effect of the acid is comj)letely removed by fil- tering the juice cold through animal char- coal properly prepared. It passes from the filter with an alkaline rather than an acid re-action.

After being filtered it undergoes clarifi- cation by the ordinary methods, requiring, however, rather less lime than usual. The syrup is remarkably white. One litre of it (2.1135 pints) produced 970 grammes, (= 31 oz. Troy,) whereas the same quan- tity, by measure, of the ordinary syrup, yields only 750 grammes. — lb.

[From the London Journal of Arts and Sciences. LIZAr's METHOD OF ENGRAVING.

Turpentine varnish, coloured with lamp-black, serves as an ink to draw on copperplates, as a substitute for wood en- graving. When the varnish is thoroughly dry, diluted nitric acid (or aqua-fortis) is poured upon it, and the interstice of course removed by the action of the acid.

The more the plate is covered with the drawing, the more perfect will the en- graving be. This seems to possess the advantage of both common copper engrav- ing and that of wood.

Co])per is found the best metal for the purpose.

From the Farmer's Ilegister. BEST DRINK IN HARVEST.

Water, molasses, ginger, and made palatable.

acid,

From the United States Gazette.

PROPER TIME TO CUT TIMBER TO PRE-

A^ENT DRY KOT.

7'Ae month of June is said to be the best time, and in proportion as we recede l"rom this period the danger increases.

Wood cut in the winter and heated will give out sap or moisture, most the nearer to the centre, and in June the most will issue near the sui'face. -^'©©-

From the Journal of the Anieric;m Institute. MANNER OF MAKING INDIAN INK.

A number of lighted wicks are put into a vessel full of oil. Over this is hung a dome or funnel-shaped cover of iron, at

OF ASTHMA AND DYSPEPSIA,

such a distance as to receive the smoke. Being well covered with lamp-black, this is brushed off and collected on paper. It is then well mixed in a mortar with a so- lution of gum or gluten, and then reduced to the consistence of paste ; it is then put into little moulds, where it receives those shapes and impressions with which it comes to this country. It is occasionally manufactured in a great variety of forms and sizes, and stamped with ornamental devices, eitiier plain or in gold, and vari- ous colours.

S/ips of glove leather boiled to a glue, and mixed luith black produced from the burning of a candle, ivill fit is said) make a good subslitutefor Indian Ink also.

From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.

An iso/netrical mode of drawing, con- sists in making all the rij,ht angles of a cube or other figure, on a plane at 60° or 120°. The sight of" a person viewing it, meets the vertical and horizontal parts at the same angle. This mode of (h"a\ving is well calculated for describing machi- nery; the eye is supposed to be at an infi- nite distance; sometimes called mililary persjjective.

Charcoal chalks for drawing. — Saw the finest charcoal into slips of the size wanted, and put them into a vessel of melted bees-wax; put them near a slow fire for half an hour; take them out, and when they are perfectly cool, they are fit for use. The advantages of these pencils are, (it is said) that they can be made at the most trifling expense, and the draw- ings made with them are as permanent as ink.

The above process will harden both red and black chalks, and also make them permanent.

From the Philosophical Magazine and Journal.

Extract from an experimental inquiry . into the Laws of Vital Functions-,

with some observalioyu on the Nature

and Treatment of Internal Diseases.

By A. P. Wilson Philip, M. D. F. R.

S. E.

He says " I cannot help regarding it as almost ascertained, that in those diseases in which the derangement is in the ner- vous power alone, where the sensorial

functions are entire, and the vessels hcaltliy, and merely the power of secre- tion, which seems immediately to depend on the nervous system, is in fault, galvan- ism will often prove a valuable means of relief."

OF ASTHMA AND DYSPEPSIA.

The following observations relate chief- ly to affections of the lungs:

Of Ihe effects of galvanism in Dyspepsia, the principal experience which I have yet had has been in cases where it was com- plicated witii asthmatic breatliing. When the etl'ect of depriving the lungs of a con- siderable part of the nervous influence is carefully attended to, it will be found, I think, in all respects similar to a common disease, which may be called habitual asthma; in which the breathing is con- stantly oppressed; better and worse at dif- ferent times, but never free, and often continues to get worse in defiance of every means we can employ, till the patient is permanently unfitted for all the active duties of life. The animal in the above experiment, is notaffectetl with the croak- ing noise and violent agitation, which generally characterize fits cf spasmodic asthma. This state we cannot induce arti- ficially, except by means which lessen the aperture of the glotis. We have seen from repeated trials, that both the oppres- sed breathing and the collection of i)hlegm, caused by the division of the eighth pair of nerves, may be prevented, by sending a stream of galvai'.ism through the lungs. That this may be done with safety in the human bod}', we know from numberless instances, in which galvanism has been applied to it in every possible way.

Such are the circumstances which led me to expect relief from galvanism in ha- bitual asthma. It is because that expecta- tion has not been disappointed, that I trou- ble the reader with the following account of its effects:

Although the effects of galvanism in habitual asthma have been witnessed by many other medical men, I have mention- ed nothing in the following pages which did not come under my own observa- tion.

I have employed galvanism in many cases of habitual asthma, and almost uni- formly with relief. The time, during which the galvanism was applied, before

OF ASTHMA AND DYSPEPSIA.

the putient snid that his breathing was easy, has varied from five minutes to a quarter of an hour. I speak oi" ilsappHca- tiou in as i^reat a dej^ree as the patient coukl bear without complaint. For this, effjct I generally found from eiglit to six- teen four-inch plates of zinc and copj)er, the fiuid cn)ph)yed being one part of mu- riatic acid, and twenty of vvater sufTieient.

Some re(}uire more than sixteen phites, and a few cannot bear so many as eight ; for the sensibility of different individuals to galvanism, is very different. It is curi- ous, and not easily accounted for, that a considerable power, that perhaps of tvven- ty-tive or thirty plates, is often necessary on first applying the galvanism, in order to excite any sensation; yet, after the sen- sation is once excited, the patient shall not perhaps, particularly at first, be able to bear more than six or eight plates. The stronger the sensation excited, the more speedily in general is the relief. I have known the breathing instantly relieved by very strong power.

1 have generally made it a rule, to be- gin with a ver}' weak one, increasing it gradually at the patient's request, by mov- ing one pf the wires from one division of the trough to another, and moving it back again when he complained of the sensa- tion being too strong. It is convenient for this purpose to chai'ge with the fiuid about thirty plates.

The galvanism was applied in the fol- lowing manner: — Two thin plates of me- tal, about Ivvo or three inches in diameter, dipped in water, were applied, one to the nape of the neck, and the other to the pit of the stomach, or rather lower. The wires froni the different ends of the trough* were brought into contact with these plates, and as observed above, as great a galvanic power maintained, as the patient could bear without complaint.

In this way the galvanic influence was sent through the lungs as much as possible in the direction of their nerves. It is proper, constantly to move the wires upon the metal plates, particularly the negative wire, otherwise the cuticle is injured in the place on which they rest. The relief seemed much the same, whether the posi-

* I Found a troii"!) of the old construction belter tlian tlie improved pile, wliiclj is niucl» superior for most puiposes.

live wire was applied to the nape of the neck, or the pit of the stomach. The ne- gative wire gene: ally excites the strongest sensation. Some patients thought that the relief was most speedy when it was ap- plied near the pit of the stomach.

The galvanism was discontinued as soon as the jjatient said that his breathing was easy.

In the first cases in which I used it, 1 sometimes prolonged its application for a quarter of an hour, or twenty minutes, after the patient said he was perfectly re- lieved, in the hope of preventing the early recurrence of the dyspnoea; but I did not find tbat it had this effect. It is remarka- ble, that in several who had laboured un- der asthmatic breathing for from ten to twenty years, it gave relief quite as readi- ly as in more recent cases; which proves, that the habitual difficulty of breathing, even in the most protracted cases, is not to be ascribed to any permanent change having taken place in the lungs.

With regard to that form of asthma which returns in violent paroxysms, with intervals of perfectly free breathing, I should expect little advantage from gal- vanism in it, because as I have just ob- served, I found that the peculiar difiiculty of breathing which occur in this species of asthma, cannot be induced in animals except by means of lessening the aperture of the glotis.

It is probable, that in the human sub- ject, the cause producing this effect is spasm, from which indeed the disease takes its name, and we have no reason to believe, from what we know of the na- ture of galvanism, that it will be found the means of relaxing spasm. The spasmodic asthma is fortunately a very rare disease; so much so, tliat but one case has occurred to me, since 1 have employed galvanism in asthma, while I have had an opportu- nity of employing this remedy in about forty cases of the habitual form of the dis- ease. I cannot therefore, from experience, speak^with certainty of the eflects.of gal- vanism in the former. In the above case it was twice employed in the paroxysm, andfl could observe no^relief from it. In botfi instances the patient said that, had it not been used, the symptoms would have been more severe.

In this patient, the spasmodic paroxysm

FEBRIFUGE.

was often succeeded by a state ol habitual asthma, for several weeks, in which gal- vanism gave immediate l)ut temporary re- lief.

Of the above cases of habitual asthma, many occurred in the work-people of the town where I reside, who had been oblig- ed to abandon their employments in con- sequence of it, and some of them from its long continuance, witiiout any hope of re- turning to their regular work. Most of them had tried the usual means in vain. By the use of galvanism they were re- lieved in different degrees, but all suffi- ciently to be restored to their employ- ments. I have seen several of them lately, who although they have not used the gal- vanism for some months, said they had continued to work without any inconve- nience. Some, in whom the disease had been wholly removed, remain quite free from it; some have had a return of it, and have derived the same advantage from the galvanism as at first.

I have confined the application to asth- matic dyspnoea. I think there is reason to believe, from the experiments which have been laid before the reader, that in inflammatory cases it would be injurious, and in cases arising from dropsy, or any other mechanical impediment, little or nothing, it is evident, is to be expected from it.

Habitual asthma is often attended with a languid slate of the biliary system, and some fulness and tenderness on pressure near the pit of the stomach. If the last is considerable, it must be relieved previ- ous to the use of the galvanism. In a pa- per which the Medico-C^hirurgical Society did me the honour to publish in the se- venth volume of their transactions, I have endeavoured to show that a species of pulmonary consumption arises from a dis- ease of the digestive organs, many of the observations there made apply to certain cases of asthma.*

I believe to cases of every species of this disease, but particularly of that we are here considering, many cases of habitual asthma will yield to the means recom- mended in the above paper; but I have learned from a pretty extensive experi- ence, that a large majority of such cases

will resist them: yet readily admit of re- lief from galvanism. If there is little tendency to inflammation, galvanism seems also to be a means of relieving the affection of the digestive organs. I have repeatedly seen from it the same effect on the biliary system which arises from calo- mel; a copious bilious discharge from the bowels, coming on within a few days after its employment. This seldom happens' except where there appears to have been a failure in the secretory power of the liver, or a defective action in the gall tubes.

I have not found that the presence even of a severe cough, which is common in habitual asthma, in which there is always more or less cough, counter-indicates of the use of galvanism.

( To be continued.)

PROCESS RECOMMENDED FOR THE CURE OF CANCHR.

Ashes of red oak bark boiled down to the consistence of molasses, and cover the cancer with it. In about an hour after- wards cover it with a plaster of tar, vvhich must be removed after a few days ; and if any protuberance remain in the wound, apply more pot ash and the plaster again, until this shall disappear.

* See the observations on the state of these organs in asthma, in Ur. Bree's work on this disease.

From the Repertory of Arts.

Febrifuge discovered by M. Armond Sequin, is Gelatine^ taken the moment the cold fit begins to be felt. The patient should be well covered and take no vio- lent exercise. Keep his room on the day of the paroxysm, abstain as much as pos« sible from liquid food of all kinds, and from fruits, spices, and spirtuous liquors; live principally on thick soups and meat of the best quality boiled or preferably roasted; and above all, drink extremely little however thirsty he may be. Eat moderately. Taken also morning aqd evening while the fever lasts, and even for a certain time after it is over. Eat nothing for an hour after the cessation of the paroxysm, or an hour after the applica- tion of the remedy, if it is taken in the intermission. The patient must not coun- teract the sweats. Children under 1 year from 24 grains to 1 dram at an applica- tion ; from 1 to 3 years, from 48 grains to 2 drams; from 3 to 7 years, from 1 to

10

SEA BATHIXG.

4 drams; from 7 to 12 3-ears, from 2 to 6 drams ; from 12 to 16 years, from 2 to 12 drams, and all above that from 2 drams to 3 ounces. The discoverer aforesaid, took eight ounces at once, without incon- venience, except a sliglit fatigue and drow- siness. Whei'c the patient is much re- duced at commencement, the doses should be gradually increased till the fever is cured, and then mix a draught of cinna- mon and sugar infused in good wine, with a dose of from 4 to 8 ounces per day. In obstinate fevers,, the dose to be so large as to produce more exhaustion and more pain in his head for 24 hours, than would have been from the paroxysm alone; but in succeeding paroxysms it is proper to administer large doses in the intermissions, and much smaller ones at the beginning of the paroxysms. Quhi quina should on no account be used at the same time. When fever is accompanied with worms and other disorders^ other medicines should also be used.

Preparation. — Select the most dry and transparent gelatine; dissolve it in a sand bath in three parts water, add equal parts of sugar and some drops of orange flower water. The sugar and orange flower wa- ter, serve to disguise in some degree, the insipidity of the gelatine. The gelatine may also be prepared in cakes and kept for any length of time, as follows, viz: Transparent gelatine and sugar, equal weight of each, or one part of each and three parts or weight of water. A small quantity of orange flower water, and pour it into a glass inould which contains as many superficial inches as there are drams of jelly in tlie mixture. When it becomes hard take it out of the mould and lay it on a wire grating, formed in like manner of squares of an inch each. When it is almost dry, cut it according to its di- visions. When these cakes are wanted for use, nothing more is necessary than to dissolve them in the smallest quantity of water, and thus to take them in a liquid form, or they may be suffered to melt in the mouth.

From the Pliilosopliical Tr.inssctions. INCREASE OF VELOCITY IN MACHINERY.

The most advantageous mode of increas- ing velocity by a series of wheels, is to adjust them so that the multiplication of

velocity will proceed in a geometrical progression.

TO MAKE LITHOGRAPHIC PENCILS.

Mix the following ingredients : Soap, three ounces ; tallow, two ounces ; wax, one ounce; when melted smooth, add a sufficient quantity of lamp-black, and pour it into moulds.

From Silliman's Journal.

STEPiEOTYPE METALOGRAPHIC

PUINTIXG.

Take two plates of very soft iron of moderate dimensions, give one face of each a very true and fine polish, so that when applied by these surfaces, they will uni- formly fit and adliere together. Moisten two slips of printed newspaper, or parts of a leaf from a book oi the size of the plates, apply one to the polished face of each plate, and interpose between tliem a fold or two of silk paper, and then clamp the plates together. Give them a gentle heat over the fire, then place them in a vice and apply a strong power; on separ- ating them and gently removing the paper the letters will be seen distinctly formed on the faces of the two plates. As printers ink is formed of lamp black and oil upon which acid acts very little, the faces of ihe plates may be slightly touched over with dihited sulphuric or nitric acid, which if skilfully applied, acts on the iron and leaves the letters raised. When the printers' ink contains some bees-wax the experiment is more complete. These plates when once formed may be converted into steel on the plan of Mr. Perkins, after which they would probably print 10,000 or 20,000 copies without being materially defaced. An expert mechanic with proper machin- ery, could in a day or two, form a suffici- ent number of plates to print off" 20,000 copies 500 pages of an octavo volume. Other metals as copper, brass and type- metal, with slight variations can all have letters transferred to them in the same manner, and can be used as printing plates, but none of them will have the durability of Iron.

From the Eiicycloineiihi Americana. SEA BATHING.

Sea BATHING IS BENEFICIAL in all dis- eases of the glands of all kinds, and of the skin in scrofula and a scrofulous pre-

ON THE BITE OF THE ADDER.

11

disposition, exhausting sweats, and ten- dency to catarrhs, chronic nervous diseases, particularly hysteric attacks, epilepsy, St. Vitus' dance, also, sometimes in Chronic Rheumatism.

Injurious, in plethora, inclination to congestions and discharges of blood, dis- eases of the heart, tendency to pulmonary consumption, obstruction and induration of internal organs.

A floating bath where patients may un- dress, is preferable to going in with the clothes on.

From the Mechimies' Magazine. IMITATION OF GOLD.

Take of linseed oil three ounces, Tartar two ounces, yolk of eggs boiled hard and beaten two ounces. Aloes half an ounce. Saffron five grains, Turmeric two grains. Boil all these toji,elher in an earthen vessel and with it wash the iron, and it will look like gold. If there be not linseed oil enough, you may add more.

From Uie Mechanics' Magazine. TO TEMPER STEEL EDGE TOOLS.

If it should be too hard, melt a sufficient quantity of lead to immerse the edge of the tool, having previously brightened its sur- face, then plunge it into the melted lead for a few minutes, till it gels sufficiently hot to melt a candle, with which rub its surface, then plunge it in again and keep it there till the steel assumes a straw color (but be careful not to let it turn blue;) when that is the case take it out, ruli it again with the tallow and let it cool. If it should be too soft wipe the grease off and repeat the process without the tallow, and when sufficiently hot, plunge it in cold spring water or water and vinegar mixed. By a proper attention to these directions and a little practice, ever}^ workman will have it in his power to give a proper tem- per to the tools he may use. If a saw be too hard it may be tempered by the same means. If you are near a plumber's shop you may repeat the process conveniently and without expense, when they are melt- ing a pot of lead. In other cutting tools y-ou must wait till the steel just begins to turn blue, which is a temper which will give it more elasticity, and at the same time, sufficient hardness.

From tlie Retrospect of Philosophical, Mechanical,

Chemical, and Agricultural Uiscoveries. ON THE MEANS OF REMOVING THE EF- . FECTS OF THE BITE OF THE ADDER.

BY VV. N. .

[Dickson's Agricultm'al Magazine, No. 7.]

As many farms are infested with this poisonous reptile, which affords a remedy for its own bite, more efficacious than any medicine, the writer conceived he should be usefully employed in pointing out the means of reiDoving the effect of the bite, the success of vvhich he had four times ex- perienced in its application to a pointer, which had been stung by the venomous reptile. The mode of cure recommended by him is to procure as many adders as possible in the month of May, and to take the fat from them, and simmer this fat over a fire to extract the oil, (which at that time they yield in the greatest plenty), and to preserve the same in a phial for use. When any animal is stung by the adder, he advises opening several places in the swelled parts, with a phleme, to discharge the corrupted blood, and then to moisten the wound several times with the viper's oil, till the svvellings begin to decrease ; when it should be healed by the application of an ointment, composed of half a pound of pork suet, half a pound of turpentine, half a quarter of a pint of oil of turpentine, two ounces of linseed oil, two ounces of bees-wax, two ounces of rosin, and three table-spoonsful of honey, which are boiled well together, and strain- ed through a piece of crape; and half an ounce of powdered verdigris to be stirred in till the whole becomes cool.

It is added that this ointment is also extremely serviceable among horses, for collar and saddle chafes, as well as for kicks, cuts, c^-c.

Observations. — The remedy recom- mended for the curing of the venomous bite of the adder, is in unison with the opinion of the most experienced medical men on the subject, and ought to be al- ways kept in readiness in those parts where this noxious reptile abounds. The ointment is ^vell calculated for all wounds from whatever cause produced.

From the same.

HINTS AND REMARKS ON HARVEST WORK,

AND THE SMUT IN WHEAT. BY A. B.

[Dickson's Agricultural Magazine, No. 11.]

The remarks on harvest work approach

12

IMPRESSIONS FROM RECENT MANUSCRIPTS.

too near to a controversy, and are too per- sonal to be here noticed; those on the smut in wheat, point out "washing the seed very clean, pickling it, and encrust- ing the grains witli quick-lime," as the only preventives of the smut hitherto known or practised. The writer consi- ders it very immaterial which of these operations produce the effect, so long as it is certain that the seed thus treated has yielded a crop free from smut, while the same seed, sown without any preparation, has had smut balls.

Observations. — If treating wheat, pre- vious to sowing, in the manner here re- commended, be only a popular prejudice, as many have asserted, it is worthy of recollection, that the error is on the safe side of the question.

From the same. ON THE SUITABLE REMEDIES FOR THE MOST PREVALENT DISEASES OF SHEEP,

(in FRANCE ) Read at a meeting of the Royal Medical Society of Paris, by- Professor Daubenton. Farm. Mag. No. 33.

The Professor, who kept a flock of sheep in the northern extremity of Bur- gundy, observes that in France, sheep are not affected by any intemperature of the air, but only by the violent heat of (he sun, as the wool defends them from the most intense cold, the heaviest and long- est continued raias and snows, or the se- verest frosts, were productive of no dis- (€£^se,, while the heat of the sun caused linany to die in the field, and more would jhave fallen victims to it, had not proper f)recautions been speedily observed.

This disease, which from its cause, is .<Ienominated the heat, is stated most fre- rquently to. attack tiiose sheep which are iTiost free in blood, best fed, and most ro- ibust ; the animal attacked by it gasps for t)reath, foams at the mouth, and bleeds at the nose; the eye-balls become red, the .animal droops its head, staggers, and soon falls dead. After death, all the parts of the head and throat are of a mixed colour of red, and somewhat blackish, and the blood-vessels there, appear much swelled on dissection. All these symptoms, he remarks, naturally suggests blood-letting as a remedy, which he has always found ^o effect a speedy cure if administered in

time. He proceeds to enumerate the se- veral parts of the body in which sheep are occasionally bled, and the different mode of performing the operation. But as in this disease the bleeding of the sheep must be performed quickly, and the ves- sel opened by the operation be so large as to give a suflicient quantity of blood, and be situated in a part of the body where there is no wool, he recommends bleeding in the cheek, as a method equal and simple, and prefers it to all others This is de- scribed as done on the spot where the fourth cheek-tooth is situated, which is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw, by a tubercle, suf- ficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. His words are, " to let blood in the cheek, the shepherd begins by placing an open lancet between his teeth; he then puts the sheep between his legs, and squeezes it so as to hold it fast ; his left knee is rather more advanced than the right ; he places his left hand under the head of the animal, and grasps the under jaw, so that his fingers are under the right side of that jaw near its hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein which passes in that place, and to make it swell, the shepherd then touches with the other hand the right cheek of the sheep, at the spot near equi-distant from the eye and the mouth; he there finds the tubercle which is to guide him; he can only feel the angular vein swelled below this tuber- cle. He then takes in his right hand the lancet, which he holds in his mouth, and makes the incision from below upwards half an inch in length, below the middle of the projection, which serves to guide him.

( To be continued.)

TO take impressions FROM RECENT

manuscripts. This is done by means of fusible metals. In order to show the application of it, paste a piece of paper on the bottom of a saucer, and allow it to dry; then write upon it with common writing ink and sprinkle some finely powdered gum ara- ble over the writing, which produces a slight relief When it is well dried, and the adhering powder brushed off, the fusi- ble metal is poured into the saucer and is

DISTEMPER IN DOGS.

13

cooled rapidly ; to prevent crystalization ; the metal then takes a cast of the writing, and when it is immersed in slightly warm water to remove adhering gum, impres- sions may be taken from it as from coj)per plale.

ANOTHER METHOD.

Put a little sugar into common writing ink, and let the writing be executed with this upon common paper, sized as usual.

When a copy is required, let unsized paper be taken and slightly moistened with a sponge. Then apply the wet paper to the writing, and passing lightly a flat iron of moderate heat, such as is used by laundresses, over the unsized paper; the copy will be immediately produced: this method requires no machine or prepara- tion, and ma}' be employed in any situa- tion.

TO TAKE IMPRESSIONS ON PAPER FROM DESIGNS MADE ON STONE.

The stone should be close grained, and the drawing or writing should be made with a pen dipped in ink formed of a so- lution of lac, in k-ys of pure soda, to which some soap and lamp-black should be added for colouring.

Leave it to harden for a few days; then take impressions in the following manner: dip the surface in water, then dab it with the printer's ink and printer's balls: the ink will stick to the design and not to the stone; and the impressions may be taken with wet paper, by a roller or screw press, in the ordinary way ; several hundred copies may be taken from the same design in this simple manner.

From the Retrospect of Philosophical, Mechanical, and Agricultural Discoveries.

ON THE BLIGHT IN WHEAT.

By Mr. Thomas Davis of Harringsham, (deceased). Bath Society^s Papers, Vol. 11.

Mr. Davis commences by observing, that the opinion which he had formerly given to the Society, that the bHght in wheat was & plant, and not an insect, had been since fully confirmed by the micros- copical observations of Sir Joseph Banks, who describes the manner in which the minute seeds of this plant are carried by the wind, and lodged on the growing stalks of wheat, where they take root and

vegetate, and like all parasitical plants, rob the plant to which they attach, of all its nourishment, to support themselves. The efli'ecc is too well known: it absorbs the farina or flower of the fairest and plumpest grain, and reduces it to a mere shell of bran. The remedy, however, he adds, is not so easily found, and with all due deference to Sir Joseph Banks, he thinks it very doubtful whether the evil can be eradicated b}' pulling up the dis- eased plants, or even by burning up all the straw of the blighted crop; for the seeds of this destructive plant are too mi- nute and abundant, and capable of being wafted to too great a distance, to be totally destroyed ; a single acre of blighted wheat being sufficient to supply a whole district, and botanists have admitted, that a blight grows and flourishes on otlier plants be- sides wheat.

It is not therefore conceived to be with- in the power of man, totally to prevent the ravages of this destructive enemy to agriculture, though it may be obviated in a very considerable degree, by ascertain- ing the cause, which peculiarly predispose and prepare the wheat plant for its at- tacks, and these are summed up in one word, namely, tveak)iess.

( 7b be continued.)

From the same.

ON THE DISEASES IN DOGS CALLED THE

DISTEMPER.

By a Kincardinshire Freeholder. — Far- mer's Magazine, No. 35.

As a iarmer generally values his dog next to his wife and his horse, any apolo- gy is held unnecessary for obtruding this, paper upon an agricultural publication. Ifc is noticed that the disease called the dis^- temper, is more accurately described by Dr. Blane than by any other writer, and' that his medicines have proved more suc- cessful than those of any other person y. but they yet very often fail of producing a cure, and the valuable animal dies a mis- erable and lingering death.. The gentle- man who communicated this paper to the Magazine, had administered the do&tor's- medicines to a favourite pointer, but with no avail; the unvarying symptoms had come on, when the poor animal crawled into the field and fell among some grass,^ attempting, but in vain, to eat it. He fol-

14

PROPAGATION OP FRUIT TREES IN CHINA.

lowed the suggestion of nature, and or- dered a handful of grass to be cut m shreds of about half an inch long; and when mixed with butter to be put down the animals throat; the dose was repeated three times in every twenty-four hours, and a visible amendment almost imme- diately took place, which terminated in recovery.

He admits the case to be a solitary one; but as the remedy appeared to him to be pointed out by nature, he considered it to merit attention and made it public, that the efficacy of this simple medicine might obtain a fair and unprejudiced trial.

Observations. — The remedy suggested in this article for a disease which so often proves fatal as a distempc.T, and deprives both the farmer and sportsman of a valua- ble attendant, is deserving of a trial when- ever an opportunity is aflbrded of admin- istering it. It is certain that it can do no harm; and nature not unfrequently works the greatest efi'ects by the simplest means.

From the same. ON FARM BUILDINGS,

With an account of a new species of Roof.

By Mr. John Graham. — Farmer''s

Mai; I zinc, No. 33.

The observations on farm buildings are mostly relative to the question in political economy, whether the expense .ought lo fall on the landlord or on the tenant, and are therefore little adapted to a publication which professes to confine itself to new discoveries or new applications of those already known; but the account of a new species of roof is a proper subject for the Retrospect.

It is well known that few merchant ves- sels are sheathed with copper, and that their hulls are preserved fi'om the worms by covering tiicm with jiaper, inanufac- tured for the purpose, called sheatliing paper, which is nailed on upon the wood, and tiie paper itself is secured by being covered with a coat of thin deal; and though tlie worms penetrate this outer deal, yet the paper coated with tar pre vents them from penetrating into the hull of the vessel. The new species of roof, mentioned in this paper, is formed by a covering of this paper laid on boards, pre- viousl}' nicely litted, without any inter- vals between them, the paper being lli'st

saturated with tar, and afterwards coated over with the same material. This roof is said to be equal to slates in durability, though executed at about half the expense. The practice is stated to have been intro- duced about twenty years ago, by a Mr. Wood, a ship-builder, in Grenock, whose example was " long gazed upon in stupid silence." l?ut last summer a pile of build- ^ ings for preparing alum, and a village, 1 containing about fifty families, were erect- ed \vith p;ij)cr rools of this description, which have been found to answer. ( To be continued.)

Fi-om the same. ON THE CHINESE METHOD OF PROPAGAT- ING FRUIT THEES BY ABSCISSION.

By Dr. Jamks Howison. — Trans. Soc.

ofJirts, Vol. 25.

It is stated that the Chinese do not raise fruit trees from seeds or grafts, as is cus- tomary in Europe, but in the following method:

They select a tree which they wish to propagate, and fix upon a branch which will disfigure it the least by the removal, and round tliis, as near as conveniently as may be to its junction with the trunk, they wind a rope made of straw, be- smeared with cow-dung, until a ball is formed five or six times the diameter of the branch. This is intended as a bed into which the young roots may shoot; and immediately under the ball tlie bark is di- vided down to the wood, for nearly two- thirds of the circumference of the branch: a cocoa-nut shell, or small pot, is then hung over the ball, with a hole in the bot- tom, so small, that water put therein will only fall in drops, by which means the rope is constantly kept moist; a circum- stance necessary for the ready admission of the young roots, and for the supply of nourishment for the branch. When the vessel has been supplied with water for three weeks, one-third of the remaining bark is cut, and the former incision car- ried deeper into the branch, as by this time some roots have struck into the rope, and assist in giving support. After a si- milar interval, the operation is again re- peated, and in about two months from the commcncementof the process, the roots are generally seen intersecting each other on

WIND-MILL IN MECHANICS.

15

the surface of the ball; which indicates that they are sufficiently advanced to admit of the separation of the branch from the tree; and this is best done by sawing it ofli at the incision; taking care that the rope, which must have become nearly rotten, is not shaken off by the operation; and then the branch is planted as a young tree. {To he continued.)

From the same. APPARATUS FOR THE DECOMPOSITION OF THE ALKALIES UNDER NAPHTHA, BY

GALVANISM. By Mr. W. H. Pepys.—

Phil. Mag. No. 124.

To a bottle without a bottom, a glass stopper is accurately ground. The stop- per is perforated through its axis, and a wire that is passed through this perfora- tion, serves to connect a plate of platina lying on the internal surface of the stop- per, with a plate cf copper that serves for a foot to the inverted vessel, and is brought into contact with the positive end of the galvanic trough.

The alkali, slightly moistened, is placed on the platina plate; the inverted bottle is filled with naphtha, and covered with a wooden cover, through which a platina wire, with a disc of the same metal at the lower end, is allowed to slide. This wire communicates with the negative end of the trough, and the bottom being brought into contact with the alkali, the latter is decom- posed ; the produced metal sometimes floats, but the greatest portion is found im- bedded in the alkali. The gasses evolved during the process, may be collected by a slight variation of the apparatus.

over the mouth of a third pot, the linseed oil is first strained into it, and kept warm, while the elastic gum is gradually added ; after which tiie oil is strained for use.

Three parts of English glue, dissolved in water, are added to 24 of very fine leaf lead, and the whole beat together for a-day. The mass is then cut into cakes and dried in the shade. These cakes are dissolved in water, and the metal spread thin with a hair brush upon paper, which after being dried is polished with a stone till it acquires the metallic lustre. The edges are then pasted down on a board and rubbed with the palm of the hand, previously smeared with the above gurra oil, and exposed to the sun. On the twa foUowifig days the operation is repeated,, when it acquires a brass yellow colour. ( To be continued.)

Thenard^s and Blainvilles Litho^ graphic Ink. — Soap, one-fourth; mutton suet, one-half; yellow wax, one part ;• mastic, in tears, one half, and as much lamp-black as necessary.

From the same. PROCESS EMPLOYED IN INDIA FOR FALSE

GILDING AND WHITEWASHING. — Buch- anan's Journey through the Mysore country, fyc.

The gilding in the palaces at Seringa- patam is false, and prepared from lead only. An oil, called gurra oil, is made by boiling about IS pounds of linseed oil for two hours in a bi-ass pot, to which about 6 pounds of aloes being added, the boiling is continued for four "hours more. Another pot being made hot, 12 pounds of an elastic gum called chunderasu, pre- pared from the milky juices of the ficus glomerata, ficus gonia, and several other trees,) is melted in it. A cloth being tied

VALUABLE ACID FOR ENGRAVERS,

M. Deleschamps says the best acid for engraving for every kind of biting, pra- duce a clear and deep line, without eat- ing aioay the sides of the subject, he uses a composition of acetate of silver and hydrate of nitrous ether. The acetate is precipitated into the lower part of the fur- row, where it produces a rapid and ener- getic action, the upper pans of the fur- row are occupied by the nitrous ether and preserved by its presence. — Jour. Frank, Institute.

From Rees' New CyclopaLMl'iH, (reference to plates not

given.)

WIND-MILL IN MECHANICS,

A machine which is put in motion by the force of the wind. Wind-mills are in general applied to the purpose of grinding; corn, but are occasionally used to give motion to machines for raising water, sawing-mills, or for other purposes. We shall in this article consider the wind-mill as a first mover, or jirinium mobile, which may be applied to many purposes.

The invention of wind-mills is not of a very remote date. According to some authors, they were first used in France in the sixth century; while others maintain

16

CONTENTS.

that they were brought to Europe in the time of the Crusades, and that they had long been employed in the Easl, where the scarcity of water precluded the appli- cation of that powerful agent to machinery.

The wind-mill though a common ma- chine, has some things in it more ingeni- ous than is usually imagined. Add that it is generally allowed to have a degree of perfection, which few of the popular en- gines have attained to, and which the makers are but little aware of: though the aid of mathematics has furnished ample matter for its improvement.

The vertical wind-mill, which is the kind in most common use, consists of an axis or ?hal't, placed in the direction of the wind, and usually inclining a little upwards from the horizontal line. At one end of this, four long arms or yards are fixed perpendicular to the axis, and cross each otb.er at right angles; into these arms small cross bars are morticed at right an-

gles, and other long bars are joined to them, which are parallel to the length of the arms, so that the bars intersect each other in the manner of lattice work, and form a surface, on which a cloth can be spread to receive the action of the wind. These are called the sails; they arc in form of a trapezium, and are usually nine yards long and two wide.

The ciicular motion is produced by the obliquity of the planes of these surfaces, from the plane in which all the four arms are situated ; by these means, when the wind blows in the direction of the axis, it does not impinge upon the sails at right angles to their surfaces, but strikes ob- liquely; hence the effort of the sail to recede from the wind, causes it to turn round with the common axis, and the four sails are all made oblique in the same di- rection, so as to unite their efforts for the common object. 1 [Tu be continued.)

COJTTEJ^^TS ofJ\*o. I. I*ol. J, of OISSERl/*En A* RECORD,

Title page,

Sir Humphrey D <vy 's Elcmt- nts of Agricultural Chemistry,

Iodine in Mineral Waters,

Patent substitute for leather,

Cnniifction between Meteorology and Vegetation,

Tro))ical Nights ■

Proportion )f Nitrogen in different kinds of Wheat,

Culture of Beets in Lonibardy,

New Process for extracting Sugar from Beets,

Beet Sugar,

Lizar's Metliod of Engraving,

Best drink in Harvest,

Proper time to cut Timber to prevent Ury-rot,

Manner of making Indian Ink,

Note respecting ditto,

1 some trical mode of Drawing, . .

(Charcoal Chalks for Drawing,

Experimental lnf(uiry into the laws of Vital Functions, with Observations, &c. kc.

Process recommended for the Cure of Cancer,

Febrifuge,

Increase of Velocity in Machinery,

Manner of making Lithographic Pencils • • • •.

Stereotype Metalograpiiic Printing,

Sea Batliing — where IJeneficial atul where injurious,

Imitation of Gold,

planner of Tempering Steel I' dge Tools,

The means of ii-moving the effects of the bite of the Achler,

Itemarks npfin the Smut in Wiieat,

On the suitable ren>edies for the most prevalent diseases of slieep,

Manner of taking Impressions from recent Manuscripts,

Another metliod,

Manner ot taking Impressions on Paper, from designs made on Stone,

On tlie Blight in' Wiu.Ht,

<Jn the Distemper in Dogs,

On Farm liu Idiiigs, with an account of a new species of Roof,

On tlie ('hinese method of pro[iagating Fruit Trees by abscission,

Apparatus f<ir the Decomposition of the Alkalies under Naplitha,

Process employed in India for false gilding and whitewashing,

Thenard's and Hlainvilles Lithographic Ink

Wind-Mill in Meciianics, ^

Contents

Page 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 0 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 9 9 10 10 10 10

II

n It II

vz

12 I.^ 13 13 13 14 14 15 LS 15 15 16

Wo. 2.]

OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE, AND ART

EDITED BY D. PEIRCE.

Pliila<lcl|»lii:i, Moiii€l:)y, IVovcinbt^r 5, 1S3§.

[Vol. I.

The object of this paper is to concentrate and preserve, in a form suitable for future reference, the most useful and interesting articles on the afoi-esaid subjects. Each num- ber will contain sixteen octavo pages, printed on good paper, and wlien a suffi- cient amount is published to form a volume of convenient size, an alphabetical table of contents will be published and forwarded to subscribers, in order for binding. This number, shows the general plan of tiie work.

Published monthly, for one dollar a year, payable in advance; six copies to the same address for five dollars, (^3^ Letters may be addressed to the Editor, in every instance post paid, No. 31 Cherry street.

SILK WORM AND SILK MANUFACTURE.

The caterpillar or larva, emphatically known by the title of the silk worm, is, when full grown, nearly tiiree inches long and of a yellowish gray colour; on the upper part of the last joint of the body is a horn-like process, as in many of the spinges. It feeds, as every one knows, on the leaves of the white mulberry, in defect of which may be substituted the black mulberry, and even in soine instan- ces, the lettuce and a few other plants. The silk worm remains in its larva state about six weeks, changing its skin four times during that period, and, like other caterpillars, abstaining from food for some time before each change. When full grown the animal entirely ceases to feed, and begins to form itself a loose envelopment of silken fibres in some convenient spot, which it has chosen for that purpose; and afterwards proceeds to enwrap itself in a much closer covering, forming an oval yellow silken case or ball, about the size of a pigeon's egg, in which it change? to a chrysalis, and after lying thus enclosed for about the space of fifteen days, gives birth to the moth. — This however is al- ways prevented when the animals are reared for the purpose of commerce; the moth greatly injuring the silk of the ball by discharging a quantity of coloured fluid ■ before it leaves (he cell; the silk-balls are therefore exposed to such a degree of heat as to kill the enclosed chrysalides, a fevv only being saved for the breed of the fol- lowing year. The moth, when hatched j

is a short-lived animal, breeding soon af- ter its exclusion; and when the females have laid their eggs, they, as well as the males, survive but a very short time.

The length of the silken fibre or thread drawn by the silk-worm may be supposed to differ considerably in different silkl)alls. According to Boyle, as quoted by Dur- ham, a lady, on making the experiment, found the length of the ball to be consid- erably more than 300 yards, though the weight was only two grains and a half.

The Abbe La Pluche informs us, that of two balls, one measured 924 feet, and the other 930. It may be proper to add that the silk throughout its v/hole length is double or composed of two conjoined or agrahitinated filaments.

Silk as spun by the animal, is in the state of fine threads, varying in colour from white to a reddish yellow. It is very elastic, and has considerable strength if we consider its small diameter. It is covered with a varnish, to which its elas- ticity is owing. This varnish is soluble in boiling wafer; but alcohol does not act upon it. Hence it has been compared to a gum, though it approaches much nearer to a gelatine; since BerthoUet has shown that it is precipitated by Tan, and by Mu- riate of Tin. It differs however, from gelatine in several particulars. Alum throvvs it down of a dirty white; Sulphate of Copper, of a dark brown, and Sul- phate of Iron, of a brown colour.

When the water is evaporated, the var- nish is obtained of a black colour, brittle,

15

SILK WORM AND SILK MANUFACTURE.

and of a shining fracture, lis weight j is nearly one third of the raw silk from which it was extracted. It may he sepa- rated from silk by soap as well as water, and the soap leys containing it, soon pu- i trefy.

Besides the varnish, silk contains another substance to which it owes its yellow col- our, this substance possesses the proper- ties of Resin. It is yellow, soluble in Alcohol, and in a mixture of Alcohol and Muriatic Acid. Beaume, has ascertained that by this last mixture, it may be sepa- rated completely, and the silk deprived of it assumes a fine white colour.

The chemical properties of silk itself, have been but imperfectly examined. It is not acted on by water or alcohol, has no taste, and is but impertectly combustible; though fire rapidly blackens and decom- poses it. When distilled, it yields accord- ing to Newman, an uncommonly great pro- portion of ammonia. The fixed alkalies dissolve it by the assistance of heat, and it is not unlikely that they form with it, an animal soap. It is dissolved likewise, by sulphuric and muriatic acids, and by nitric acid.

By the action of this last acid, Barthol- let obtained from silk some oxalic acid, and a fatty matter which swam on the surface of the solution. By a similar treatment Welter obtained fine yellow crystals, very combustible, to which he gave the name of yellow bitter principle.

Silk is very little susceptible of putre- faction. Dr. Wilson, of Falkirk, says that a ribbon was lately found in the church yard of that town, wrapt round the bone of the arm. It was uninjured, though it had lain eight years in the earth. We know at the same time, that when silk is kept in a damp place it rots (to use the common language,) in a much shorter time.

Maniif act lire, or Preparation of Silk. When the silk worms have completed their balls or cocoons, they are collected and put into little baskets, and thus expos- ed to the heat of an oven to kill the in- sect, which without this precaution would not fail to open itself to go away and use those new wings abroad, it has acquired within; ordinarily, they only wind the more perfect balls; those that are double,

or too weak or too coarse, are laid aside, not altogether useless, but that, being im-- pi'oper for winding they are reserved to be drawn out into skeins. The balls are of difierent colours; the most common are yellow orange colour, Isabella, and flesh colour; there are some also of a sea-green, others of a sulphur colour, and others are white; but there is no necessity of sepa- rating the colours and shades apart, ta wind them, as all the colours are to be lost in the future scouring and preparing of the silk. The goodness of silk is best distin- guished by its lightness. The organzine silk is the best of any made in the coun- try of Piedmont, and two threads are equal in fineness, that is, in smoothness, thick- ness and length, for the thread of the first twist. For the second it matters not whe- ther the single thread be strong before the two are joined, unless to see whether the first twist proves well. It is necessary, that the silk be clean; and it is to be ob- served that the straw coloured is generally the lightest, and the white the heaviest of all; the skeins should be even, and all of them of an equality, which shows that they were wrought together; otherwise we may with justice suspect that it is refuse silk, and cannot be equally drawn out and spun, for one thread will be shorter than the other, which is labour and loss.

It will also be requisite to search the bale more than once and take from out of the parcels a skein to make an essay; for, unless it is known by trial, there is the greatest danger of being cheated in this commodity. To wind silk from off the balls two machines are necessary; the one a furnace with its copper, the other a reel or frame, to draw the silk: the winder then seated near the furnace, throws into the copper of water over the furnace (first heated and boiled to a certain degree, which custom alone can teach) a handful or two of balls, which have been first well purged of all their loose furry substance. The winder then stirs the whole very briskly about with birchen rods, bound and cut like branches; and when the heat and agitation have detached the ends of the silk of the cocoons, which are apt to catch on the rods, the ends ol the silk are to i)e drawn forth and joined ten or twelve, or even fourteen of ihem together, and lormed into threads according to the size

COLOURING MATTER AND PRINCIPLES OF DTING.

Id

required, to the works they are designed for; eight ends sufficing for ribands ; and velvets requiring no less than fourteen. ( To be continued.)

COLOURING MATTER AND PRINCPLES OF DTING.

The substances commonly employed for clothing may be reduced to four, namely, wool, silk, cotton and linen.

Permanent alterations in the colour of cloth can only be induced two ways; ei- ther by producing a chemical change in the cloth, or by covering its fibres with some substances which possess the wish- ed for colour. — Recourse can seldom or never be had to the first method, because it is hardly possible to produce a chemical change in the fibres of cloth, without spoiling its texture and rendering it use- less. The dyer, therefore when he wishes to give a new colour to a cloth, has al- ways recourse to the second method.

The substances employed for this pur- pose are colouring matters, or dye-stuffs. They are for the most part extracted from animal and vegetable substances, and have usually the colour which they are to give to the cloth.

Since the particles of colouring matter, with which cloth when dyed is covered are transparent, it follows that all the light reflected from dyed cloth, must be reflected, not by the dye-stuff itself, but by the fibres of cloth below the dye-stuff. The colour therefore does not depend up- on the dye alone, but also on the previous colour of the cloth. If the cloth be black, it is clear that we cannot dye it any other colour whatever; because as no light in that case is reflected, none can be transmitted, whatever dye-stuff we employ. If the cloth be red, blue, or yellow, we could not dye it any colour except black; be- cause, as only red, or blue, or yellow rays are reflected, no other could be transmit- ted. Hence the importance of a fine white colour when'cloth is'to receive bright dyes. It then reflects all the rays in abundance, and therefore any colour may be given, by covering it with a dye-stuff which transmits only some particular rays. If the colouring matters were merely spread over the surface of the fibres of cloth by the dyer, the colours produced might be very bright, but they could not be per-

manent ; because the colouring matter would be very soon rubbed off; and would totally disapjjear whenever the cloth was washed, or even exposed to the weather. The colouring inatter then, however per- fect a colour it possesses, is of no value, unless it also adheres so firmly to the cloth that none of the substances usually ap- plied to cloth, in order to clean it, &c. can displace it. Now this can only happen, when there is a strong affinity between the colouring matter and the cloth, and when they are actually combined together in consequence of that affinity. Dying then, is merely a chemical process and consists in combining a certain colouring matter with fibres of cloth. This process can in no instance be performed, unless the dye-stuff is first reduced to its integ- rant particles; for the attraction of aggrega- tion between the particles of dye-stuffs, is too great to be overcome by the affinity between them and the cloth, unless they be brought within much smaller distances than is possible while they both remain in a solid form. It is necessary therefore, previously to dissolve the colouring mat- ter in some liquid or other, which has a weaker affinity for it than the clolh has. When the cloth is dipped into this solu- tion, the colouring matter, reduced by this contrivance to a liquid state is brought within the attracting distance, the cloth therefore acts upon it and from its stronger affinity takes it from the solvent, and fixes upon itself. By this contrivance too, the equlity of the colour, is in some measure secured, as every part of the cloth has an opportunity of attracting to itself the pro- per proportion of colouring particles. The facility with which cloth imbibes a dye depends upon two circumstances, namely, the affinity between the cloth and the dye- stuff, and the affinity between the dye- stuff and its solvent. It is directly as the former and inversely as the latter.

It is ol importance to preserve a due proportion between these two affinities as upon that proportion much of the accu- racy of dying depends. If the affinity between the colouring matter and the cloth be too great, compared with the af- finity between the colouring matter and the solvent, the cloth will take the dye too rapidly, and it will be scarcely possir bleto prevent its colour from being une-

20

(Ol.OlRING M.V1TI:K and Pr.INCIPI.KS OF DYING.

qual. On ihe other hand, if the affinity between the colouring matter, and the solvent be too great, compared with that between the colouring matter and the cloth, the ciotli will either not take the colour at all, or it will take it very slowly and very faintly.

Wool has the strongest affinity for al- most all colouring matters, silk the next strongest, cotton a considerably weaker affinity, and linen the weakest affinity of all.

In order, therefore, to dye cotton, or linen, the dye-stuff should in many cases be dissolved in substances for which it has a weaker affinity than for the solvent em- ployed in the dying of wool or silk. Thus we may use oxide of Iron dissolved in sul- ])huric acid, in order to dye woof: but for cotton or linen, it is better to dissolve it in acetous acid. Were it possible to procure a sufficient number of colouring mitters, having a strong affinity for cloth to an- swer all the purposes of dying, that art would be exceedingly simple and easy. But this is by no means the case; if we except indigo, the dyer is scarcely pos- sessed of a dye-stufT which yields of it- self a good colour, sufficiently permanent to deserve the name of a d3'e.

This difficulty, which at first sight ap- pears insurmountable has been obviated by a very ingenious contrivance. Some subsiance is employed which has a strong affinity both for the cloth and the colour- ing matter. This sub-stance is previously combined with the cloth which is then dipped in tbesolulion containing the dye- stuff. The dye-stuff combines with the intermetliate substance, which being firm- ly combined with the cloth secures the permanence of the dye. Substances em- ployed for this purpose are denominated mordants. The most important part of dying is undoubtedly the proper choice, and proper application of mordants; as up- on them, the permanency of almost every dye depends. Every thing whieli has been said respecting the npplic:Uion of colourinj5 matters applies equally to the application of mordants. 'Ihey must be previously dissolved in some liquid, which has a weaker affinity for them than the cloth has, to which they are to be applied; and the cloth must be dipped; or even steeped in this solution, in order to be

saturated with the mordant. Almost the only subsiance used as mordants are earths, metalic oxides, tan and oil. Of ear- thy morxlants the most important and most genei'ally used, is alumina.lt is used either in the state of common alum, in which it is combined wiih sulphuric acid or in that of acetate of alumina. Alum when used as a mordant, is dissolved in water, and very fr-equently a quantity of tartar is dissolved along with it.

Into this solution the cloth is put, and kept in it till it has absorbed as much al- umina as is necessary. It is then taken out, and for the most part washed and dried. It is now a good deal heavier than it was befor-e, owing to the alumina which has combined with it. The tartar serves two purposes; the potass which it contains combines with the sulphuric acid of the alum, and thus prevents that very corro- sive substance fr-om injuring the texture of the cloth, which otherwise might hap- pen, the tartarous acid on the other hand, combines with part of the alumina and forms a tartrate of alumina which is more easily decomposed by the cloth than alum. Acetate of aluinina has also been used in dying. This mordant is now prepared by pouring acetate of lead into a solution of alum; a dou!>le decomposition takes place, the sulphurous acid combines with the lead, and the compound precipitates, in the form of an insoluble powder, while the alumina combines wiih the acetous acid, and remains dissolved in the liquid. I'his mordant is employed for cotton and linen, which have a weaker affinity than wool for alumina. It answers much bet- ter than alum; Ihe cloth is much easier satur-ated with alumina and takes in con- sequence, both a richer and more perma- nent colour.

( To be continued.)

BEETS INTO

PROCESS OP CONVERTING SUGAR. iiaiTuel's Method.

\sl. proces.^. To wash the roots and cut off the topi.

2. To reduce the root to a pulp, this may be done in various ways; two indent- ed cylinder's, one working within the other is considered the best.

3. To express the juice. This should be done as speedily as possible, for the

PROCESS OP CONVERTING BEETS INTO SUGAR.

21

Juice alters very rapidly, and becomes more and more mucilaginous, to the in- jury of the future operations. 100 parts of beets give from 65 to 70 of juice.

4. To neutralize the acid and evap- orate. When the juice begins to boil, some chalk is stirred in as long as there is any effervesence. It is then scummed, boiled down sufficiently and the syrup transferred to conical moulds for six or seven days to deposit its earthy salts.

5. To clarify and boil down. The syrup is clarified either with skimmed milk or blood, and then strained and boiled down.

6. To crystallize the sugar. This is the longest process. It is done in square shal- low earthen, or tinned iron vessels, kept in a stoved chamber, the heal of which is steadily maintained at 90° to 95° Fahr.

The sugar does not begin to crystallize in less than six or seven days. The cr)'S- tals form a crust at the top of the liquor and the sides of the vessels, which con- tinue to form as long as the liquor retains any sugary taste. In about 25 or 30 days the crj'stallization ceases, and the fluid which remains has a saline and unpleasant flavour. The crystallized crusts are col- lected and cautiously pressed in a sack, and then yield the first rough Muscovado which is stoved for ten or twelve hours, and is fit for the common uses of Musco cane sugar.

By these processes 74 kilogammcs of Muscovado is obtained from 5000 kilo- grammes of beet root. (The kilogram- me is equal to about 35^ oz. avoirdupoise or 2.205 lbs.) The Muscovado is thes fit for further refining by claying, (§'C. in the usual manner, in which it loses about 1-8 of its weight to be reduced to saleable loaf sugar.

Some observations may be added on the cultivation of the beet. It requires a light dry sandy soil. The seeds are sown in April or May, and the plants require much weeding and thinning.

When they have acquired their full size, which is from October to November, the tops are headed off", and serve as fod- der for cattle, and the earth is turned down from round the top of the root to give access to the sun, which improves the quality of the j'uice. The root is then

dug up and left for a few da)^s on the sur- face before it is stored. It should be kept in a dry place. One arpent of ground should produce al least 15000 kilogram- mes of roots.

The expense of cultivating the beet and manufacturing sugar in the great way (including machinery buildings, labour, rent of land 4'c. ^'c. estimating the inter- est of" the cost of building and machinery and wear or annual depreciation,) is con- sidered to avarage 98 centimes (^100 centimes make a franc ) for each killo- gramme of Muscovado, and every killo- gramme of refined sugar will cost one frank 40 centimes.

PROCESS TO CONVERT STARCH INTO SUGAR. Kirchoff's Mcihoil. Take 100 pounds of starch, 400 of water, 1 lb. of sulphuric acid, and suffi- cient powdered charcoal and chalk. First mix half the water v/ith the sulphuric acid and bf)il it in a well tinned copper; rub the starch with the rest of the water; pass it through a sieve: and add- it by six ounces at a lime, to the boiling dilute sul- phuric acid. When the whole is added, continue the boiling for thirty-six hours, adding more water in- the room of that which is boiled away, then add some charcoal powder, and chalk sufficient to saturate the acid, and pass the liquor through a linen cloth, which is now clear and sweet. Evaporate it by a gentle heat to the consistence of syrup, when the sulphate of lime will crystallize. Again strain the liquor, and set it by to crystallize, when the sugar will separate in about three days. Press the rough sugar with care so as to free it from the syrup, and by re-dissolving and again crystalli- zing the raw sugar, it will become very fine and good.

Sulphuric acid in any proportion will convert starch into sugar, but if the quan- tity of acid is increased more water must be added, and especially the boiling should be continued long'r which in every case remarkably promotes the subsequent crys- tallization. The nitric, muriatic, and ox- alic acids, will equally convert starch into sugar, but not the acetous, phosphoric, or tartarous acids.

22

PROCESS OF CONVElt'lING BEKTS INTO SUGAR.

Another Process is Ikus described:

Bullion La Grange's Melliod.

Some starch is first well washed with rohl water to remove any accidental sac- chniine or extractive matter, and well (liied. Two kilogrammes of this starch lubbed down with eight kilogrammes of river water acitlulatcd with forty grammes oi' concentrated sulphutic acid, are boiled lor thiity-six hours in a silver basin. For the first hour the mixture is stirred con- htaiitly to keep it from burning, but after- wai'ds, as it becomes thinner, only occa- sionally. Water is from time to time to be added, to supply the waste by boiling. After boiling, the whole is clarified with charcoal and chalk, and filtrated through a woollen cloth. The li- quor is then evaporated nearly to a syrup, and let cool, to allow some of (he sulphate of lime to settle; after which the clear syrup is boiled down to a thick consis- tence. This syrup is much clearer and sweeter when prepared in a silver vessel than in one of tinned copper; indeed, the latter material can hardly be used on ac- count of the action of the acid upon the tin by the long boiling; but a leaden, boil- er muy be employed with advantage. The quantity of rich syrup given in this pro- cess is about equal to that of the starch employed; and M. Vogel obtained the same results with twice the proportion of acid and only eight hours boiling. As several vegetable substances have a deci- dedl};^ sweet taste but without containing an)' real sugar that can be extracted from them, M. Vogel tried to produce the vi- nous fermentation in the starch sugar. A quantity of it was mixed with warm water and leaven, the fermentation soon took place, much carbonic acid was given out, and the fermented liquor gave by distilla- tion, a sensible quantity of alcohol. The most highly saccharine starch syrup, slow- ly stoved in tin plate moulds, gave a per- fectly transparent elastic matter like the paste of jujubes, which attracted moisture from the air. A similar saccharine gummy mass was obtained from potato starch. This mass was further analysed by boiling with alcohol, which left undissolved about a fifth of the whole as a very viscous mat- ter, that became friable when dry, and pgain dissolved by cold water into a thick jnucilage insoluble in alcohol. In these

properties it closely resembled gum-arabic but differed from this gum in not forming the mucous acid when treated with nitric acid. The gummy matter of the starch syrup has been considered by some as a compound of starch, water and sulphuric acid; but JM. Vogel shows clearly that it does not contain any of this acid, neither, indeed, does the saccharine part, soluble in alcohol, give any indications of sulphu- ric acid. These experiments led the au- thor to examine the action of the diluted mineral acids upon other substances. Su- gar of milk was selected, as being in its natural state incapable of entering into the vinous fermentation: one hundred gram- mes of sugar of milk were boiled for three hours with four hundred gramn)es of wa- ter and two grammes of strong sulphuric acid, adding water to supply the waste. The excess of acid was then neutralized by chalk, and the liquor when strained was clear, but slightly coloured. Slowly evaporating, it left a thick brown syrup which in a few days thickened to a crys- talline mass of a rich sweet taste, much more than the sugar of milk itself^ and. soluble in alcohol, in which too it diflfers from sugar of milk. This crystalline mass very readily entered into fermentation, when properly diluted, and the fermented liquor yielded a considerable proportion of alcohol. The experiment was repeated with 3, 4, and 5 parts of sulphuric acid, and with equal success, the crj'stalline mass being always highly saccharine and fermentable.

Muriatic acid was found to have the same efiect with the Sulphuric, in changing the sugar of milk into an extremely rich, sweet, fermentable syrup. — Nitric Acid on the other hand, and radical vinegar, produce no change. — Such are the facts of the singular conversion of starch or sugar of milk into an intensely sweet fermentable saccharine mass, though it does not appear that perfect crystallized sugar has yet been obtained in this way. The theory of this operation is very difficult of explana- tion. Some have thought that the mere continuance of heat efiected the change, but the author boiled starch and water alone for four successive days, and at the end, a very liquid mass was obtained, which when slowly dried left a thick bitter mu- cilage without the smallest saccharine

PROCESS OP CONVERTING BEETS INTO SUGAR.

23

taste. It becomes a question whether the Sulphuric Acid is decomposed in the process. For this purpose M. I^a Grange, took a given weight of sugar of milk, and Sulphuric Acid and water, boiled them for three hours in a retort, and the distilled liquor was carefully examined by Barytes, Litmus, and other tests, but neither the sulphuric acid, sulphurous, acetic, nor carbonic acid was produced, the liquor being pure water. Afterwards on satura- ting the acid contents of the retort with a known weight of potash, and evaporating the whole to dryness, the dry mass was less by about an eighth part, than the united weights of the sugar of milk and the sulphate of potash, produced by the Sul- phuric Acid and the alkali employed. This loss of weight must therefore be ac- counted for, in the water distilled over, as no gas whatever was generated in the pro- cess.

Hence La Grange supposes, that the operation of the Sul])huric Acid is to disengage from the starch or sugar of milk, so much hydrogen and oxygen, as will produce water, and that the loss of these principles, converts the remainder into a saccharine matter.

On the Sugar from Potato Starch.

By Dr. Tulhill.

A very interesting experiment on this subject is related by Dr. Tuthill. One pound and a half of potato starch was mixed with six pints of distilled water, and a quarter of an ounce by weight, oi common sulphuric acid, in a common cov- ered earthen vessel. — The mixture was kept boiling for thirty-four hours with- out intermission, fresh water being occa- sionally added to supply the waste by evaporation. At the end of twenty-four hours the liquor had become sensibly saccharine, and this quality continued to increase as the boiling was prolonged.

At the end of thirty-four hours, half an ounce of finely powdered charcoal was added, and the boiling continued two hours longer. The acid was then satura ted by lime, and the boiling continued for another half hour, after which the liquid was strained through calico, and the resi- due in the filter washed with warm water. This residue, when dry, weighed I of an ounce, and was charcoal and sulphate of

lime. The clear liquor was then evapo- rated in a water bath to the consistence of syrup, and set aside to crystallize. In eight days it congealed into a crystalline mass, tasting like common brown sugar with treacle. One pound of this sugary matter was then redissolved in four pounds of water, a quarter of an ounce of yeast added, and the mixture set to ferment. In ten days the fermented liquor began to smell sourish, and was immediately distil- led. A pint and a half of the first run- nings were alone collected, which redistil- led, gave a weak ardent spirit, which from its specific gravity was found by Blagden's Tables, to contain 14 drams by measure of proof spirit.

The whole quantities used, and the pro- duct were S| lbs. of potatoes, yielding 1^ lbs. starch, which gave 1^ lb. of dry saccha- rine matter, from which, after fermenta- tion, as much ardent spirit was extracted as would equal 14 drams, by measure, of proof spirit.

Observations on the three preceding Articles.

M. KirchofF's curious discovery of the conversion of starch into sugar, by the agency of sulphuric acid, is fully confirm- ed by these experiments, but the explana- tion of this singular change is very ob- scure.— By a late analysis of several kinds of vegetable matter, through the agency of oxy muriate of potash, by Messrs. Gay l^ussac and Thenard, these eminent Chem ists think that they have established the following facts, viz:

1st. That a vegetable substance is always acid when the oxygen which it contains is in a greater proportion to the hydrogen than that which constitutes water.

2nd. That the vegetable substance is al- ways resinous or oily, or alcoholic, when ihe oxygen is in a less proportion to the hydrogen, than to constitute water.

" 3d. That the vegetable substance is an alogous to sugar, starch, gum, ligneous fibre, <§*c. when all the oxygen and hydro- o-en united would exactly compose water.

If there is any reliance to be placed on these positions, it must follow that sugar, starch, gum, and sugar of milk, may be said to consist only of carbon and water; and on a separate analysis of each, the above Chemists estimate the carbon of su-

24

ON THE MOST SUITABLE REMEDIES FOR DISEASES IN SHBEP.

gar to be 42.47 per cent; that of gum arable to be 42.23; that of starch to be 43.55; and that of sugar of milk to be 3S.S25; all the remaining part of each substance to be oxygen and hydrogen, in the same proportion as would produce water. There- fore, if the agency of sulphuric acid in Mr. Kirchoff's experiment is merely to abstract water, or its constituent parts, from the starch or sugar of milk, and thus to convert them into sugar, it should of course follow that suijar must contain proportionably mucii more carbon than these. This explanation would answer well enough for sugar of milk, the car- bon of which, according to the statement given, is only 38.825 per cent; but the carbon of starch is somewhat more than that of sugar, and liiat of gum arable is scarcely less, it appears certain, however that some loss of weight is experienced by these substances during their conver- sion into sugar, and that there is no evi- dence of any decomposition of the sul- phuric acid.

FOR

ON THE MOST SUITABLE REMEDIES DISEASES OP SHEEP.

(Continued from puge 12. J Professor Daubenton also remarks, that there is another remedy absolutely neces j same ti'me so destructive oYthe health, and sary for sheep in every country, and in detrimental to the fleece of the animal,

with it the fourth of the quantity of oil of turpentine; this cheap an^l simple me- thod is f( und to have no bad effect upon the wool, but to soften the skin which has been hardened by the eruption, and to completely cure the disease. Frona much experience he pronounces this remedy to be far preferable to the infusion of tobac- co, oil of Juniper, solution of green vit- riol, of alum, of common salt, the flow- er of sulphur, the gray ointment, or any of the remedies in ordinary use, and adds that it may be rendered more active by increasing the oil of turpentine.

Observations. Notwithstanding these remarks more particularly relate to France, yet the similarity of diseases to which sheep are subject, on both sides of the channel render them interesting to an English reader. Though from the differ- ence of climate between France and Eng- land, the heat is not likely to prevail here to any extent, still instances may oc- cur, and where they do bleeding is ob- viously the only effectual remedy, and the mode of performing the operation pointed out by M. Daubenton is equally safe and certainly more efficacious than any method practised in this country. The scab is a disease which occurs so fre- quently and so universally, and it is at the

every season — a remedy for the Itch and Scab, to which they are more liable than to any other disease. He conceives that though none arc exempt from it, yet that

that it cannot be too carefully or too anx- iously guarded against. The ointment recommended, simple as it is, is an effec- tual and safe remedy, though not perhaps

those which are best t'iid, and those which I so speedy as some others; but infusion of are most vigorous are most liable to it. It tobacco, oil of Juniper, and solution of is a disease which makes continual pro- 1 salt, harden and irritate the skin still

gress, and the longer it lasts, the more difficult it is to cure, for which a shepherd should be extremely attentive to watch its earliest approaches; and wherever a sheep scratches itself or the wool is dis- placed, should carefully examine the part h.y separating the wool, to see if any real symptoms manifest themselves.

Tiie remedy which Mr. Daubenton prefers to all others as most efficacious towards a cure, and least detrimental to the wool is to dress the part affected, af- ter moderately scratciiing the skin, with an ointment made by melting a pound of suet or fat over the fire, and then mixing

more, and are therefore hurtful to the growth of the wool, sulphur gives it a bad smell, which even remains after shearing, and the mercury in the gray ointment, may bring on a salivation, to remove which internal remedies may become ne- cessar3^ Tiiis ointment seems more de- serving of general adoption, as a reme- dy for the scab than the much celebrated preparation of Sir Joseph Banks.

Remarks by the fditor of the Obser- ver and Record. The above article is one deserving the attention of every per- son in the U. S. interested, or engaged in raising sheep.

ON THE BLIGHT IN WHEAT.

25

ON THE Blight in wheat.. ( Continued fro7n page 13. J That class of plants which the botan- ists call mosses and lichens, are reckoned by this writer, the insects of the vegetable kingdom, destined to jDrey on weak plants, as insects of the animal kingdom are to prey on weak animals. And in both cases the remed}? must be looked for in the natural health and vigour of the object.

He then applies this argument to wheat by considering the nature of the plant and the kind of cultivation which usually renders it protluctive, or as nature has furnished the wheat plant with a double set of roots so contrived that the first may be deep enough to enable it to stand the severity of the winter, and the second so shallow as to admit the genial iufluence of the spring, it first shoots down a per- pendicular tap root to keep it steady through the winter, and in the spring til- lers out a number of coronal roots, each of which has alsoitn own proper root and produces its own ear, though still adher- ing to the former root, and when this op- eration is complete, the winter root be- comes useless and decays; but if the win- ter root be iinperfect, the side shoots will be so likewise, for which reason a strong solid foot hold for the tap root, is neces- sary for wheat, and the more complete the winter root, the more perfect the crop; in like manner, if the 3^oimg plants be un- equal,so will the ripening of the crop; and it is generally found that blight takes the crop while one part of the ear which is ripe, is wasting for another part which is green.

A thin crop of wheat and a late ripen- ing crop are said to be the peculiar prey of the blights, and these are generally produced either by sowing the land witli wheat which is unfit for it, or in an im- proper stale of cultivation, or by sowing it in an improper season. In short he gives it as his opinion that any cause whicii tends to weaken the plant, will predis- pose it to receive the blight.

Among the most obvious of these are reckoned, 1st. sowing wheat on land that has been so worn out by cropping as to have lost that tenacity and cohesion, which are so necessary to a wheat crop, and which dung without rest, will not restore. 2. Sowing the land in a light loose state, whereby the plants root too near the sur-

face, and are liable to be injured by the frosts and to have the roots laid bare by the wind. 3. Sowing wheat too late in autumn, especially in poor and exposed situations, where the roots have not time to establish themselves before winter comes on, and vegetation is at a stand. As these causes appear to him to have occur- red more of late years than in preceding times, he thinks there is much probability in the assertion " the blight on wheat has increased of late years." For it has not been uncommon to sow land with wheat every third, instead of every fourth or fifth year, introducing in the interim a system of crops exactly calculated to make the land, light, whereby the crops of wheat, though abundant in straw, have not had strength enough to support them till harvest, but have been laid by the rain, and thereby become a prey to the blight. And it has been more the prac- tice lately to sow wheat after turnips, which has been productive of clean crops, but the wheat has been unavoidably sown a month too late, and being consequently late ripe, has been attacked by the blight. Nor has it been an unfrequent prac- tice to sow wheat after potatoes, which is still worse, except in rich deep land, where the plants will grow through the whole of the winter, and the practice of sowing wheat after clover is held to have been carried to too great an extent, as it encourages the slug and the wire-worm, which destroy and weaken a considerable portion of the wheat crop, and necessari- ly render it more obnoxious to blight. If then it can be proved (and Mr. Davis as- serts that every farmer has observed it,) that weak crops of wheat and particular- ly of /«/e ri/?e crops are peculiarly sub- ject to blight, he thinks it should be the object of the husbandman to sow onlu such land with wheat as is fit for wheat, to get that ready early in summer, that it may be close and firm before sowing, to sow as early as the weather will per- mit, and such kind of seed as will ripen early, and above all, not to wear out his land by too frequent repetitions of wheat crop, since not the number of acres sown but the number of bushels produced will enrich the farmer, and supply the market. Observations. These remarks on the cause of the blight in wheat by a man

26

PROCESS TO MAKE VARNISHES.

who joined the best information and the strongest sense to the most extensive ex- perience, are better deserving the notice of the practical farmer, than whole vol- umes by a mere theorist, whatever may be his rank or acquirements. The advice of Mr. Davis, in the last paragraph can never be attended to without producing corresponding advantages.

PROCESS TO MAKE VARNISHES.

Lack varnishes, or lacquers, consist of different resins in a state of solution, of which the most common are mastich, san- darach, lac, benzoin, copal, amber, and asphaltum. The menstrua are either ex- pressed or essential oil, or alcohol. For a varnish of the first kind the common painters' varnish is to be united, by gently boiling it, with some more mas- tich or colophony, and then diluted with a little more oil of turpentine. The lat- ter addition promotes both the glossy ap- pearance and drying of the varnish. Of this sort also is the amber varnish. To make this varnish half a pound of amber is kept over a gentle fire in a covered iron pot, in the lid of which there is a small hole, till it is observed to become soft, and to be melted together into one mass. As soon as this is perceived the vessel is taken from the fire and suffered to cool a little, when a pound of good painters varnish is added to it, and the whole suffered to boil up again over the fire, keeping it continually stirring. Af- ter this, it is again removed from the fire and when it is become somewhat cool, a pound of oil of turpentine is to be grad- ually mixed witli it. Should the varnish when it is cool, happen to be yet too thick, it may be attenuated with more oil of turpentine. This varnish has always a dark brown color, because the amber is previously half burned in the operation; but if it be required of a bright color, amber powder must be dissolved in trans- parent painters' varnish, in Papin's Ma- chine, by a gentle fire. As an instance of the second sort of lac varnishes with etherial oils alone, may be adduced the varnish made with the oil of turpentine.

For making this, mastich alone is dis- solved iii oil of turpentine by a very gentle,, digesting heat, in close glass ves- sels. This is the varnish used for the

modern transparencies employed as win- dow-blinds, fire screens, and for other pur- poses. These are commonly prints, col- ored on both sides, and afterwards coated with this varnish on those parts that are intended to be transparent. Sometimes fine thin calico, or Irish linen, is used for this purpose, but it requires to be primed with a solution of isinglass be- fore the color is laid on, copal may be dis- solved in genuine Chio turpentine by ad- ding it in powder to the turpentine pre- viously melted, and stirring till the whole is fused. Oil of turpentine may then be added to dilute it sufficiently. A varnish of the consistence of thin turpentine, is obtained by the digestion of one part of elastic gum, or caoutchouc, cut into small pieces, in thirty-two parts of naphtha. Previously to its being used however, it must be passed through a linen cloth in order that undissolved parts may be left behind. The third sort of varnishes con- sist of the spirit varnishes. The most solid resins by themselves produce brittle varnishes; therefore something of a softer substance, must always be mixed with them, whereby this brittleness is dimin- ished.

For this purpose Elemi, Turpentine, or balsam of Capaiva, are employed in proper proportions. For the solution of these bodies the strongest alcohol ought to be used. In conformity to these rules a fine colored varnish may be obtained by dissolving eight ounces 'of gum Sandar- ach, and two ounces of Venice turpen- tine in thirty-two ounces of alcohol by a gentle heat. Five ounces of shell-lac and one of turpentine dissolved in thirty-two ounces of alcohol by a very gentle heat give a harder varnish but of a reddish cast. To these the solution of copal is undoubt- edly preferable in many respects. This is effected by triturating an ounce of pow- dered gum copal, which has been well dried by a gentle heat, with a drachm of camphor, and while these are mixing to- gether, adding by degrees, four ounces of the strongest alcohol without any diges- tion. Between this and the gold varnish there is only this difference, that some substances that communicate a yellow tinge, are to be added to the latter. Take two ounces of shell-lac, of annatta, and turmeric, of each one ounce, and thirty

PROCESS TO MAKE VARNISHES.

27

grains of fine dragon's blood, and mak ean extract with twenty ounces of alcohol, in a gentle heat. Oil varnishes are commonly mixed immediately with the colors; but lac or lacquer varnishes are laid on by themselves upon a burnished colored ground. When they are intended to be laid upon naked wood, a ground should be first given them of strong size, either alone or with some earthy color, mixed up with it by levigation.

The gold lacquer is simply rubbed over brass, tin, or silver, to give them a gold color. Before a resin is dissolved in a fixed oil it is necessary to render the oil dry- ing. For this purpose, the oil is boiled with metalic oxides, in which operation the mucilage of the oil combines with the metal while the oil itself unites with the oxygen of the oxide.

To accelerate the drying of this varnish it is necessary to add oil of turpentine. The essential varnishes consist of a solu- tion of resin in oil of turpentine. The varnish being applied the essential oil flies ofi" and leaves the resin, this is used only for paintings. When resins are dis- solved in alcohol the varnish dries very speedily and is subject to crack; but this fault is corrected by adding a small quan- tity of turpentine to the mixture, which renders it brighter, and less brittle whea dry. The colored resins or gums, such as gamboge, dragon's blood, &c. are used to color varnishes. To give lustre to the varnish after it is laid on, it is rubbed with pounded pummice stone and water, which being dried with a cloth^ the work is afterwards rubbed with an oiled rag and tripoli. The surface is last of all clean- ed with soft linen cloths, cleared of all greasiness with powder of starch, and rubbed bright with the palm of the hand. The following receipt for a good spirit var- nish is given by Tingry : Take strong alco- hol thirty-two parts; pure mastich, four; sandarach, three; clear Venice turpentine, three; coarsely ground glass, four; reduce the mastich and the sandarach to fine powder; introduce them with the glass and spirit, into a matrass, which is to be placed in hot water, for one or two hours taking care to stir up the materials from time to time with a glass spatula; then

pour in the turpentine, and keep the ves- sel tor half an hour longer in the water. Next day decant off" the liquor, and filter it through cotton. It will be perfectly limpid. This varnish isusualy applied to objects of the toilet, as work boxes, card cases, «§'C. Essence varnish, by the same. Take mastich in powder twelve parts; pure turpentine one and a half; camphor in bits, one half; crystal glass ground, five; recti- fied oil of turpentine, thirty-six. Put the mastich, camphor, glass and oil into a matrass, and dissolve as above described. This varnish is applied to paintings. Fat varnish. Take copal, sixteen parts, lin- seed, or poppy oil, made drying with litharge, eight; oil of turpentine, sixteen, melt the copal in a matrass by exposing it to a moderate heat; pour then upon it the boiling oil; stir the mixture and when the temperature is about 200° Fahr. add the oil of turpentine heated; strain the whole through a linen cloth and keep the varnish in a wide mouth bottle. It be- comes very clear in a little while, and is almost colorless when well made. Copal varnish is applied on coaches, also gener- ally on polished iron, brass, copper, and wood — varnish, among medalists, is the . term used to signify those hues which an- tique medals have acquired by lying in the earth. The beauty which nature alone is able to impart to medals^ and which art has never yet attained the power of counterfeiting, enhances their value.

The colors acquired by certain metals, from having lain a long while in the ground, are various, and some of them exquisitely beautiful. The blue nearly rivals that of turquoise, others have an in- imitable Vermillion color ; others again, a polished shining brown. But that most usually found is a delicate green, which hangs to the finest strokes without effac- ing them. No metal except brass is sus- ceptible of this. The green rust which gathers on silver, always spoils it, and must be removed with vinegar or lemon juice. Falsifiers of medals have a varnish which they use on their counterfeits, to give them the appearance of being an- tique; but there are means of discovering these deceptions. — (See Numismatics) Encyclopedia Americana.

28

DESCRIPTION OP A VAPOUR, FUMIGATION OR SHOWER-BATH.

Description of a vapour, fumigation or shower bath.

*ddapted at a cheap expense for Public Hospitals, or Private Families.

By Geoi'ge Cumming, M. D.

Trans. Soc. of Arts. Vol. 33.

This Bath is extremely simple, and may be conveniently made of a piece of cooperage, of sufficient dimen.'^ions. But nothing can perhaj)s answer better than a common wine-pipe, which after being well washed, is to be sawn across, al)out the middle, then to be well scraped and cleaned in the inside, and afterwards pla- ced vertically upon a frame with castors. The upper half (in the top of which an aperture has been previously prepared for the iiead and neck of the bather,) is to be furnished with cord pullies and counter- poise, so that by connecting it with any beam, roof, or ceiling, it can be raised or depressed, or in other words, the bath can be opened or shut with the greatest facility. Upon the margin of the lower piece of the bath there is a groove, three-fourths of an inch deep, receiving the circumference of the upper half and which is thus form- ed. A strong iron hoop is first put on, on the outside, and then well driven about half its depth, when a similar one, after being riveted, is driven to the same depth within. — The groove thus formed, is of the first importance, as it not only rend- ers the bath, with the assistance of a little water, steam tight, but also effectually prevents it from undergoing any change of shape. It may also be observed that the above hoops are so hammered or set, as to make the grooves somewhat wider than the staves upon which they are ap- plied, and that the edge of the upper or moveable piece of the Bath, is cut with a cooper's knife so as readily to fall, or slip into it.

The boiler is distant from the Bath about six feet, and the steam pipe is made to enter an inch above the bottom, and to extend itself horizontally to the centre of the same, when with the view of equally difi'using the heat, a piece of coarse linen or calico stretched upon a hoop (with a notch to admit the steam tube,) is placed over it. This may be called the difTuser, and is made of a less diaineter than the

bottom of the bath, in order that the feet of a strong frame or grating to support the bather, may securely rest upon the bot- tom of the bath.

Immediately over this grating, a floor of split ash (like a sieve,) is laid, and upon this, a seat is placed which is fasten- ed to tiie side of the bath, by means of a bracket. This seat serves the bather as a step as he gets in, or comes out of the bath. To accommodate the various sizes of bath- ers, light frames covered with split ash, in the manner of cane-work, may be placed upon the same seat if required.

The whole of these loose articles may be packed within the bath, when not in use, and placed in proper order, in a few seconds when wanted.

Dr. Cumming concludes his general de- scription of the apparatus by declaring that it is simple, cheap, neat, durable and effi- cient, and admits of a great variety of ap- plications.

In this opinion we perfectly concur, and think that Dr. Cumming has made an useful present to the public, in contriving this apparatus, which may enable many an invalid to employ the valuable remedy of a vapour bath with comparative ease and cheapness.

AN IMPROVED MACHINE TO ENABLE BOOT AND SHOE MAKERS TO WORK WITHOUT PRESSURE UPON THE BREAST OR STO- MACH.

By Mr. J. King, Trans. Soc. of Arts.

This machine consists of an oblong frame of wood of two sides, with cross pieces. It may be conveniently fixed in a situation, and at a proper height for working, by screwing down to a window . sill by means of two screws, such as are used for bedsteads. These, and an iron bracket extending from the front to the machine, being screwed against the wain- scot, support the machine very steadil}'; or a stand consisting of proper legs, may be used if preferred. The external parts of the machine are covered with leather, so as to become like cushions to support the last, and it is held down by a strap, . which has a loop or treadle at the bottom, for the foot. The principal novelty of this invention consists in a lever which is attached by an iron link to a wire,

CHINESE CORN.

29

upon which it moves as a centre, and when that is clown in its place, a small point or beak of iron, enters into holes made in an iron plate; and the other end of I he lever comes to rest on a stop, which has several holes in it. The end of the lever has also a little iron beak which en- ters these holes. Thus, when the lever is down, it becomes an immoveable cross- bar of the frame, and the last may be held or wedged in between this, and either side of the frame, and held down by the strap. But to adjust the width of the opening on which the last lies, nothing more is neces- sary than to lift up the lever, so that the point clears the holes of the plate, then sliding the link along the wire to the intended width, and shutting it down again, the beak or point enters some other hole of the plate, and holds the lever fast in the new position, so as to adapt it to the width of any last, or to hold it in any po- sition at pleasure.

Mr. King observes that at other limes the last is held down by the foot strap pressing the lever upon it ; that the ma- chine forms an universal vice, supporting and holding the last firmly down upon the cross-bar, in any required position. Two stiff pieces of sol*.- leather are also fixed in the Irame, which in certain positions sup- ports the last.

(ibservations. — If confidence is to be placed in the certificate of a long list of individuals who have used Mr. King's machine, and who state that it is highly conducive to the health of boot and shoe- makers, Mr, King will, doubtless, be speedily gratified in witnessing its general adoption by that numerous class of the community; but we fear that the liberality of the society for rewarding individuals for inventions of a similar nature, has not yet led to the general adoption.

IMPROVEMENTS IN MONTGOLFIER's HY- DRAULIC RAM.

These improvements consist in, 1st. widening the body ram in a curved form, which facilitates the entrance of the water as much as possible and thus augments the effect of the machine; 2d. in substituting hollow balls for flap valves ; 3d. by the addition of a small sucking valve, which admits at each pulsation a quantity of air into the head of the ram, from whence it

is expelled at the following pulsation intcc the compressing reservoir, which would be filled with water if the air lost by ab- sorption were not renewed by this method; 4th. by so disposing the valve of ascension that between its outer sides and the inside of the head of the ram, there shall be a volume of air which cannot be driven into the reservoir, but which is compressed at each pulsation by the power of the water. In consequence of these improvements, the shutting of the valves make less noise, all the operations take place with more gentleness, the machine is Jess shaken, less liable to want repairs, and its con- struction is rendered more simple.

CHINESE CORN.

Mr. Grant Thorburn, of Hallets Cove^ N. Y. informs the public in a letter to the Editor of the New York Commercial Advertiser, that he has the aforesaid corn for sale, price 25 cents per ear. He describes the corn as striking off in two, three, and frequently four branches, in appearance like a small tree, and produ- ces an ear at the head of each branch. It grows from 8 to 10 feet high, produces an abundance of fodder, is a large white flint twelve row corn, and ears from 10 to 14 inches long, he counted six hundred and sixty grains on one ear; it was planted on the lOlh of May, and had ears fit to boil on the 10th of July; the produce of one stalk was two thousand one hundred and twenty grains, although subject to a severe drought while growing. The dutton, planted on the same day, on the same field and receiving the same quantity of man- ure, cross ploughing and hoeing, did not produce one half of the quantity. — U. Si Gaz.

Tomato Pies equal to fine English Gooseberries.

The other day we partook, for the first time, of a Tomato pie, anri were so much pleased with the treat that we en- quired into the mode of making them. The tomatoes are skinned and sliced, and after being mixed with sugar are prepared in the same manner as other pies.

The Tomato is likely to become one of the most useful plants. — Phila. Com. H. and Sent.

50

AftRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

From Sir Humphrey DavrsEieme.u8 of Agricultural I gredient^^ The earthy matters are the

true basis of the soil; the other parts,

Ciiemistr)' AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

Continued from p rge 3.

The vahie and uses of every species of agricultural produce are most correctly estimated and applied when practical knowledge is assisted by principles deri- ved from chemistry. The compounds in vegetables, really nutritive as the food of animals, are very few; farina or the pure matter of starch, gluten, vegetable jelly, and extract. Of these the most nutri live is gluten, wh,ich approaches, nearest in its nature to animal matter, and which is the substance that gives to wheat its su- periority over other grain.

The next in order as to nourishinj power is sugar, then farina; and lastot all gelatinous and extractive matters.

Simple tests of the relative nourishing powers of the different species of food, are the relative quantities of these sub- stances that they afford by analysis; and though taste and appearance must in- fluence the consumption of all articles in years of plenty, yet they are less attended to in times of scarcity, and on such occa- sions this kind of knowledge may be of the greatest importance.

Sugar and farina, or starch, are very similar in composition, and are capable of being converted into each other by simple chemical processes. In the discus- sion of their relationsj I shall detail to you the results of some recent experiments which will be found possessed of applica- tions both- to the economy of vegetation, and to some important processes of manu- facture.

All the varieties of substances found in plants, are produced from the sap, and the sap of plants is derived from water or from the fluids in the soil, and it is altered by. or combined with principles derived from the atmosphere. The influence of the soil, of water, and of air, will therefore be the next subject of consideration. Soils in all cases consist of a mixture of differ- ent finely divided earthy matters; with animal or vegetable substances in a state of decomposition, and certain saline in-

* Note — In lines 2.3 & 24, p. 2, col. 2d, instead of six and three substances, read seven are inflammable bodies and two are gasses.

whether natural or artificially introduced, operate in the same manner as manures. Four earths generally abound in soils, the aluminous, the sileceous, the calcareous, and the magnesian. These earths, as I have discovered, consist of highly inflam- mable metals united to a pure air or oxy- gen, and they are not as far as we know, decomposed or altered in vegetation.

The great use of the soil is to afford support to the plant, to enable it to fix its roots, and to derive nourishment by its tubes slowly and gradually, from the sol- uble substances mixed with the earths.

That a particular mixture of earths is connected with fertility, cannot be doubt- ed : and almost all sterile soils are capable of being improved by a modification of their earthy constituent parts. I shall de- scribe the simplest methods as yet discov- ered of analyzing soils, and of ascertaining the constitution and chemical ingredients which appear to be connected with fertil- ity, and on this subject many of the for- mer difficulties of investigation will be found to be removed by recent enqui- ries.

The necessity of water to vegetation, and the luxuriancy of the growth of plants connected with the presence of moisture in the southern countries of the old continent, led to the opinion so prev- alent in the early schools of philosophy, that water was the great productive ele- ment, the substance from which all things were capable of being composed and in- to which they finally resolved, " water is the noblest," seems to have been an ex- pression of this opinion, adopted by the Greeks from the Egyptians taught by Thales, and revived by the alchemists in late times. Van Helmont in 1610, con- ceived that he had proved by a decisive experiment that all the products of veg- etables were capable of being generated from water. His results were shown to be fallacious by Woodward in 1691, but the true use of water in vegetation was unknown till 1785, when Cavendish made the grand discover}', that it was composed of two elastic fluids or gasses, inflammable gas or hydrogen, and vital gas or oxy- gen.

Air, like water, was regarded as a pure

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

31

element by most of the ancient philoso- phers: a few of the chemical enquirers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, formed some happy conjectures respecting its real nature.

Sir Kenelm Digby in 1660, supposed that it contained some saline matter, which was an essential food of plants. Boyle, Hooke, and Mayaw, between 1665 and 1680, stated that a small part of it only was consumed in the respiration of ani- mals, and in the combustion of inflammable bodies; but the true statical analysis of the atmosphere is comparatively a recent la- bour, achieved towards the end of the last century by Scheele, Priestly, and Lavoisier. These celebrated men showed that its principal elements are two gasses, oxygen and azote, of which the first is essential to flame, and lo the life of ani- mals, and that it likewise contains small quantities of aqueous vapour, and of car- bonic acid gas; and Lavoisier proved that this last body is itself a compound elastic fluid, consisting of charcoal dissol- ved in oxygen.

Jethro Tull, in his treatise on Horse- hoeing, published in 1733, advanced the opinion that minute earthy particles sup- plied the whole nourishment of the veg- etable world; that air and water were chiefly useful in producing these particles from the land; and that manures acted in no other way than in ameliorating the texture of the soil, in short that, their agency was mechanical.

This ingenious author of the new sys- tem of agriculture, having observed the excellent efiects produced in farming by a minute division of the soil, and the pul- verization of it by exposure to dew and air was misled by carrying his principle too far. Duhamel, in a work printed in 1754, adopted the opinion of Tull, and stated that by finely dividing the soil any number of crops might be raised in suc- cession from the same land. He attemp- ted also to prove, by direct experiments, that vegetables of every kind were capa- ble of being raised without manure. This celebrated horticulturist lived however sufficiently long to alter his opinion. The results of his later and most refined obser- vations led him to the conclusion, that no single material afforded the food of plants. The general experience of farmers had

long before convinced the unprejudiced of the truth of the same opinion, and that manures were absolutely consumed in the process of vegetation. The exhaus- tion of soils by carrying off' corn crops' from them, and the efiects of feeding cat- tle on lands, and of preserving their man- ure, offer familiar illustrations of the principle; and those philosophical enquir- ers, particularly Hassenfratz and Saussure, have shown by satisfactory experiments, that animal and vegetable matters deposi- ted in soils are absorbed by plants, and become a part of their organized matter. But though neither water, nor air, nor earth, supplies the whole of the food of plants, yet they all operate in the process of vegetation. The soil is the laboratory in which the food is prepared. No man- ure can be taken up by the roots of plants unless water is present; and water or its elements exist in all the products of veg- etation. The germination of seeds does not take place without the presence of air or oxygen gas; and in the sunshine veg- etables decompose the carbonic acid ga^ of the atmosphere, the caibon of which is absorbed and becomes a part of their organized matter, and the oxygen gas, the other constituent, is given off; and in consequence of a variety ot agencies, the economy of vegetation is made subser- vient to the general order of the sj^stem^ of nature.

It is shown by various researches that the constitution of the atmosphere has been always the same since the time that it was first accurately analyzed; and this must in a great measure depend upon the powers of plants to absorb or decompose the putrefying or decaying remains of an- imals and vegetables, and the gaseous effluvia which they are constantly emit- ing. Carbonic acid gas is formed in a variety of processes of fermentation and combustion, and the respiration of ani- mals, and as yet no other process is known in nature by which it can be con- sumed, except vegetation. Animals pro- duce a substance which appears to be a necessary food for vegetables; vegetables evolve a principle necessary to the exis- tence of animals; and these different clas- ses of beings seem to be thus connected together in the exercise of their living functions, and to a certain extent made to

32

CONTENTS.

depend upon each other for their exis- tence. \Vater is raised from the ocean, diffused through the air, and poured down upon the soil, so as to be applied to the purposes of life. 'J'he different parts of the atmosphere are mingled to- gether by winds, or changes of tempera- ture, and successively brought in contact with the surfice of the earth, so as to ex- ert their fertilizing influence. The mod- ifications of the soil and the application of manures are placed within the power of man as if for the ))urposc of awakening his industry and calling forth his powers.

The theory of the general operation of the more compound manures may be rend- ered very obvious by simple chemical principles; but there is still much to be discoveied with regard to the best methods of rendering animal and vegetable sub- stances soluble; with resjject to the pro- cesses of decomposition, how tbey may be accelerated, or retarded, and the means of producing the greatest effect from the materials employed; these subjects will be attended to in the lecture on manures.

Plants are found by analysis to consist principally of cbarcoal and aeriform mat- ter. They give out by distillation vol- atile compounds, the elements of which are pure air, inflammable air, coally matter, and azote, or elastic substance, which forms a great part of the atmosphere, and which is incapable of supporting combustion. These elements they gain either by Iheir leaves from the air, or by their roots from the soil. All manure from organized sub- stances, contain tbe principles of veget- able matter which during putrefaction are rendered either soluble in water or aeri- form- and in these states they are capable

of being assimilated to the vegetable or-- gans. No one principle affords the pabu-. lum of vegetable life, it is neither char- . coal nor hydrogen, nor azote, nor oxy- gen, alone; but all of. them together in various states and various combinations. Organic substances as soon as they are de- prived of vitality, begin to pass through a series of changes which end in their complete destruction, in the entire sepa- ration and dissipation of liie parts. Ani- mal matters are the soonest destroyed by the operation of air, heat, and light. Veg- etable substances yield more slowly but finally obey the same laws.

The periods of application of manures from decomposing animal and vegetable substances depend upon the knowledge of- ihese prmciples, and I shall be able to. produce some new and important facts iounded upon them, which 1 trust will re- move all doubt from this part of agricul- tural theory.

The chemistry of the more simple manures, the manures which act in very small quantities, such as gypsum, alkalies, and various saline substances, has hitherto been exceedingly obscure. It has been generally supposed, that these materials act in the vegetable economy in the same manner as condiments or stimulenls in the animal economy, and that they render the common food more nutritive. It seems however a much more probable idea, that they are actuall}' a part of the true food of plants, and that they supply that kind of matter to the vegetable fibre which is an- alagous to the bony matter in animal structures.

( To be continued.)

eOJ\^TE.^^'TS of J%'^o. S. J^oh 1, of OnSEUl^EU *%* ElECOMin,

Silk 'Worm and Silk Miinufacture, 17

Coloiirinp; MMlter and Piinciples of Dying, 19

Process of CdnverLiiij^ Heets inti> Sugar, 20

Process of converting; Starch into Sugar, 21

LnGrange's Mctliod, 22

On the Sugar from 1 fitato Starch, 23

Observations on the three preceding articles, 23

On the most salutary remedies for Diseases in Sheep, 24

On the Blight m Wheat, 25

Process to make Varnishes, 26

Description of a Vapour, Fumigation or Shower Batli, 28

An imi>roved Machine to enable Boot and Shoemakers to work without pressure upon the breast nr

stomach, 28

Improvement in Montgolfier's Hydraulic Ram, 29

Chinese Corn, . . 29

Tomato Pits, equal to fine English Gooseberries, .'. 29

Agricultural Chemistry, 30

Wo. 3.]

OF ArxRICULTURE, SCIENCE, AND ART,

EDSTED BY D. PEIRCK.

PSsiladclpliia, Monday, ©ecessiber 3, 1S38.

[Vol. I

The object of this paper is to concentrate and preserve, in a form suitable for future reference, the most useful and interesting articles on the aforesaid subjects. Each num- ber will contain sixteen octavo pages, printed on good paper, and when a suffi- cient amount is published to form a volume of convenient size, an alphabetical table of contents will be published and forwarded to subscribers, in order for binding. This number, shows the general plan of the work.

Published monthly, for one dollar a year, payable in advance; six copies to the same address for five dollars. Q^ Letters may be addressed to the Editor, in every instance post paid, No. 31 Cherry street.

For Uie Observer and liecord of Agriculture, Science, and Art.

LOCOMOTIVE STEAM ENGINES.

The writer of this has not observed in any of the scientific works, published, the following theory, and as the present time is emphatically named the " Day of ad- vancement in Steam Power,'''' the atten- tion of scientific and practical engineers is most respectfully directed to the sub- ject with a request that any position here assumed which may be incorrect, may be so proved, and given to the public through the columns of the Observer 4' Record.

The writer has no object in view be- yond that of every other citizen, who feels most anxiously the importance of cheap and rapid communications from one section of country to another, steam when directed in the best manner of which it is capable seems to be the only agent yet known fitted for this purpose.

1. Required an application of steam power upon the wheels of a Locomotive that will cause them to ascend upon an inclined plane at the highest grade, or the greatest angle from the horizon, without sliding on the rails.

2. Required the difierence, (if any) between the maximum inclination from the horizon at which the wheels of a Lo- comotive will ascend upon a plane when the best application of power is communi- cated to those wheels from the rectilinear motion of pistons, and connecting rods of steam engines, and the maximum inclina- tion at which wheels may be retained at any required position, upon a plane, when

they are prevented from turning by the application of what is usually named a brake.

^^nswer lo the first. — The wrist of the crank, if attached to the same wheel that runs upon the rail of the inclined plane, or to the axle of the wheels that run upon the rails should not re- ceive any power, or force from the engne, while it is describing any part of a circle nearer to the rails of the plane than the periphery of the axle which receives the bearing of the load, that is when lines are drawn parallel with the inclined rails, so as to meet the peri- phery of the axle at the greatest distance from the rails, and where it turns in the boxes, the power should be applied above these lines, but not below them.

The wheels which run upon the rails, then perform the function of levers of the second order, the periphery of each wheel while in contact with a rail is a ful- crum, snd the power applied being farther distant from the fulcrum than the body moved, (the axle and load) consequently forms a lever of the second order.

This effect may be produced by form- ing the axle into a triple crank, each placed at an angle of one hundred and twenty degrees from the other respective- ly, provided power can be applied from the rectilinear alternating motion of the pistons to the cranks, only while the cranks are above a line parallel with the inclined plane, and at as great a distance from it as the most distant part of the axle which supports the load (as aforesaid,)

34

LOCOMOTIVE STEAM POWER.

Jlnswer to the Second. — If the power from the steam engine be applied to the wheel or axle, above the line aforesaid, in the manner described, or by the aid of an additional wheel placed above with a cog wheel connected with the axle, so as to work into another cog wheel connected with the axle of the wheels that run up- on the rails of the inclined plane, the maximum inclination of a plane from the horizon, on which wheels may ascend when sufficient power is applied, and the maximum inclination of a plane upon which wheels may be retained by a brake (which prevents them from turning) will be the same,* provided the periphery of each wheel is perfectly cylindrical, and the rails a perfect plane, and both compo- sed of non-elastic substances; because the principle upon which the power is ap- plied to the wheels to prevent them from rolling down upon the plane in one case, and causing them to roll upwards in the other case is the same; the difference being the manner of applying the power, and the quantity, or degree of force applied. The power required to cause the wheels to roll upwards upon the plane will be more than that required to keep them sta- tionary, and the difference will be in pro- portion to the elasticity of the substance composing the wheels and inclined rails, upon which they run, and, the irregular- ity of the surface of each that comes in contact with the other.

With ordinary iron wheels and rails, the difference in practice would not, probably be more than one per cent.

For tlie Observer and Record. TO PREVENT OR CURE THE RHEUMATISM.

The use of cotton cloth next to the skin, is highly recommended for the cure and prevention of this complaint. The rea sons given for the superiority of this over wool or flax, is its superior absorbent power, thereby preserving a more uniform degree of moisture to the skin where the perspiration is irregular. Another ques- tion naturally arises, what is the best sub- stance to surround this? wool, fur, silk, flax and cotton, each has advocates, per- haps each may be best in particular situa- tions, for instance wool and fur, may be best in dry cold weather, silk in damp

* Friction not estimated.

situations, flax where the atmosphere is both dry and warm, and cotton where it is a medium between extreme dryness, moisture, heat and cold.

A proper degree of heat and electricity in the human system appears to consti- tute so large a portion of what is denomi- nated health, that every fact (however trivial it may appear) which shows how to produce or preserve the just propor- tions, is worthy of consideration.

A. D. V.

The above suggestions are certainly upon a subject of great importance, to which might be added something relative to the color of clothing, for instance whe- ther or not, the heat from the body pas- ses outward to a lower temperature, tend- ing to produce an equilibrium in the same ratio, as the heat from the rays of the sun passes inwards to a lower tempera- inve.-Co7n7minlcations from experimen- ters are requested.

ON RAISING ORANGES AND LEMONS FROM

CUTTINGS.

By A. Hawkins, Esqr. Hort. Trans, vol. 2, part 1.

The writer states that Mr. Luscombe of Combe Royal near Kingsbridge, had discovered a method of raising Orange and Lemon trees from cuttings, by which he had raised eleven plants out of thir- teen. The art is to place the cuttings in the mould deep enough to touch the bot- tom of the pot; they are then to be plung- ed in a bark, or hot bed and kept. This method has been scarcely known to fail of success in Mr. Luscombes* practice.

ON THE BLIGHT IN PEAR TREES.

To prevent the blight in Pear trees the following method is recommended. When the tree is about ten or twelve feet high, cut off the centre or main branch, a foot or two above the point where the lower branches issue. Some persons attribute the blight to an overcharge of electricity in the main centre branch, and when that is removed sufficiently low an increased number of sprouts issue, each of which conducts 9 portion of electricity to the earth', through the body of the tree, in the aggregate, more than the main branch would have been capable of doing had it been suffered to remain on the tree.

UPON THE CULTIVATION OF THE PEACH TUEE, AND PRESERVATION OP IT. j5

UPON THE CULTIVATION OF THE PEACH

TRiJE AND PRESERVATION OF IT.

Persons engaged in cultiva-

1. SmL

ting Peach trees, recommend a soil where sand predominates, and of a medium de- gree of fertility.

2. To plant. Prepare the ground as for corn, plant three or four stones (pre- viously cracked hy iho frost) at suitable distances asunder; the spaces between the places occupied by the stones may be planted with corn, so that the young trees and the corn may be cultivated at the same time.

3. To guard against the peach insect or luorm, wrap a leaf of Tobacco in a spiral manner round the young tree or plant when it is only four or five inches high, confine the ujjper end by a string to the tree an inch or two above the ground, heap up sand against the tobacco so as to press it against the tree as low as the up- per roots. Plant two or three stalks of tobacco round each tree. Pursue the same course each succeeding year, so long as the trees remain healthy. If the process here recommended should prove insuffi- cient wash the body and principle bran- ches of the trees with a decoction of to- bacco, formed by boiling some tobacco in water and applying some of the liquid to the body from the roots upwards, includ- ing the large branches, or the liquid may be combined witli soft soap, ley of wood ashes, or any substance which will destroy insects and vermin, without injuring veg- etables. If all of these fail, search the root and the body, at and near the ground, and remove with the point of a knife, or other suitable instrument such worms as may be discovered, the search should be made about the last of July, and again late in September; on the first of October remove the earth, so as to form a basin round the body of the tree, in this state they are left, until the season of cultivation; the following spring; the ice and water which frequently fill the hole, or -basin during

) the winter, effectually kill the worm, should it have escaped the search, and de- scended into the roots for winter cover- ing. Excessive bearing should be pre- vented, by close pruning. Branches to be removed may previously have roots formed on them, by what is called the

"Chinese 7}iethod" see the article pg. 14»

^^nother ptan recommended \s to pour

boiling water, soap suds, or ley, on the

body and roots after the last search in

autumn, and in the spring to place un-

leached wood ashes upon the roots, and

against the tree, to several inches in

I'll height, and over this sharp sand is placed,

which is sometimes confined to a uniform height through the summer by a box with- out toj) or bottom, which surrounds the tree.

A decoction of aloes, or a coat of tar might be applied to the body, in case all the above methods fail.

4. For the Yellows. Bore a hole in the body of the tree, fill it with mercurial ointment, and plug or cork it up. Another ^ bore a hole in the north side of the tree, fill it with spirits of turpentine and cork it up. Another, wash the body of the tree with strong brine, after the worms are removed, repeat the operation fre- quently through the spring and summer; tie a small bag of salt round each tree. This last method is recommended to guard all trees from the attacks of insects.

Hogs should be allowed to run in a peach orchard, to eat the imperfect fruit, and search for depredators. Diseased trees should be drawn up by a strong team, and converted into fuel.

( To be continued.)

THE CHINESE MULBERRY TREE, (mORUS MULTICAULIS) HOW TO PRESEVB IN WINTER.

Frequent enquiries have been made for information, as to the best manner of pre- serving the Chinese Mulberry tree (Mo- rns Multicaulis,) through the winter, a few words therefore, upon the subject may be of service to such readers of the Ob- server <§• Record, as may not be acquaint- ed with the process. Each of the follow- ing modes has its advocates, viz: 1. Place a box in a cellar, spread a layer of sand in the bottom an inch or two thick, fill one end to the top of the box, and extend the filling toward the middle, descending at an angle of two or three degrees, a dis- tance equal to the length of a tree, lay a course of trees upon this, with the roots at the lowest part of the inclined plane, and the tops at the highest part of it, fill in sand so as to cover the roots, then lay

36 THE CHINESE MULBERRY MORUS MULTICAULIS, HOW TO PRESERVE IN WINTER.

another course of trees, with the roots as near as possible to tlie former, but not over them, and the tops pointing in the same direction as those of the former course, cover the roots in like manner as those of the former, and continue in the same manner, to fill the box; the roots being surrounded by sand one or two inches in thickness, and all the trees pointing up wards at an angle of two or three degrees in one direction, or nearly so.

The trees may remain in this situation until the temperature of the atmosphere is so low, as to endanger the tops; a course of sand is then put upon the tops, cover- ing them completely to the depth of an inch or two; in this situation they may remain till immediately before planting in the spring — 2d method is to place them in a vertical position, within a box upon a course of sand an inch or two thick, and then fill the spaces between the roots with sand, and let them remain in this position, till immediately before planting them, the following spring — 3dplan, cover the trees in a garden or other convenient place, with common earth, (vegetable mould) to the depth of two or three inches, the trees being placed in the same relative | position with each other, as those describ- ed in the first mentioned plan.

Where it is desirable to adopt the first plan, and room suflicient cannot be had in a cellar, or other suitable building, the following plan is recommended as a sub- stitute, first place plank with one edge of each on the ground, so as to form four vertical sides, which for convenience, we may name a box, (with no plank in the bottom, the surface of earth forms the bot- tom) the plank are held or confined in a vertical position by stakes driven into the ground; place sand in the bottom, and the trees upon it, and proceed exactly as in the first plan before described, raise the sand two or threti inches higher in the middle from one end of the box to the other, than it is at the sides, form a roof over this witli plank, which are to be confined to each other at the upper ends, and to the box by nails, the lower ends should project a few inches beyond the plank (or sides of the box) so as to con- duct the water clear of them; heap up earth round the box against it to the height of a few inches; let the trees remain in

this situation till immediately before planting them in the spring. In trim- ming ofi' the side branches, it is recom- mended to leave one eye between the trunk and the place where the branch is separated.

BEET ROOT, RUTA BAGA AND HAND DRILL TO PLANT SEED.

The editor has frequently been asked, for information respecting the cultivation of the aforesaid plants, he is therefore in- duced to offer the following remarks, ac- companied by a request, that if any of the readers should know of a superior process, that the same may be made public.

1. To prepense the ground^ Plough land tliat has been occupied with corn the preceding year, into ridges, from eighteen inches to two feet asunder.

Spread manure of any kind in the fur- row between the respective ridges.

Turn the ridges on the manure with a plough, so as to form ridges over the ma- nure, the seed are then planted and cover- ed on those ridges by a machine of the following construction which is both sim- ple and effective, and can be put in opera- tion at a trifling expense.

Imagine an ordinary wheel barrow without any boards in front, or between the side pieces (usually named a bottom) attach di pulley to the shaft or axle of the wheel; this pulley may have several grooves formed round the periphery to admit an endless band to convey motion to the revolving seed box, hereafter de- scribed; the grooves are made of different diameters, in order to increase or dimin- ish the velocity of the revolving seed box, compared with the velocity of the wheel j and to effect this with the aid of one end- less rope or band, the groves on the shaft of the seed box, increase in the same di- rection that those on the shaft diminish in diameter; this arrangement allows the rope to be shifted to any two grooves op- posite to each other, and be of a uniform tightness in each situation.

The seed box is composed of a shaft which turn in the standards, and to this shaft d^ pulley is attached to admit an end- less rope or band, to convey motion from the wheel, as already described — and iioo hollow frustimis of cones, composed of sheet tin, soldered together at the large

AN IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OP A HORSE SHOE.

S7

ends, so as to form one piece, the middle of which may be five or six inches in di- ameter^ and the hole or opening at each small end, the same diameter, as that of the shaft, to which it is confined, so that the shaft, sheet tin vessel, and puller/, all turn together.

The sheet tin vessel has holes made round the periphery at its largest diameter, for the seed to pass out, when each hole •respectively is at the lowest position while revolving; the dimensions of each hole is sufficient for one large seed, or two small ones, to pass at the same time, the seed drop into a tube large at the upper end and small at the lower end which con- ducts the seed into the track, or hollow formed by the wheel immediately be- hind it, and are covered by a roller, which turns with a gudgeon at each end, in the respective feet of th-e wheel-barrow, near their lower ends. The distance of the holes in the sheet tin vessel asunder, may be estimated at a medium between t-lie extremes, at which plants are requir- ed to grow.

The extremes will of course be found, by placing the endless band first at one extreme end of each pulley, and tlien shifting it to the other extreme end of each pulley, and moving the wheel for- ward, while in each of these positions.

There is another hole or opening made into the sheet tin vessel of about half an inch diameter, to pass the seed into it, which may after^vards be closed with a cork or plug.

The above description is deemed suffi- cient, to enable any one to understand how to construct a machine entirely new, or to attach the parts required to an old in- vention common upon almost every farm.

DESCRIPTION OF A BUTTER POT,

To prevent butter fro7n becoming rancid in warm weather, or in hot climates.

This is nothing more than a common butter pot, but is covered with an earthen cover, made of that porous kind of earth- enware, which will permit water to pass through it, and in the form of a dish, so that this being filled with water, the water percolates down the sides, and produces a coolness by its constant evaporation.

AN IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OE A HORSE SHOE.

It is remarked that the hoof of a horse, has a constant tendency to increase in cir- cumference, and that when this natural propensity is counteracted by the opera- tion of a firm ring of iron nailed all round, the least powerful part yields to the pres- sure, which then falls upon the tender mechanism of the frog, excites a degree of inflammation, and ends in contraction; to remedy this it is proposed to use a shoe jointed about the middle of each side, having a sunk hole near the point of the heel, large enough to admit the end of a screw-bar. A screw bar is then to be made in two or three parts, similar to the machine in daily use for preserving the shape of hats, which is to be put into the shoe, whenever the horse is not at work, and then screwed by means of a double winch, so as to keep the heels of the shoe moderately extended, and this bar may be entirely removed, when the horse is wanted for his labours, and be again re- placed when he returns to the stable. And as much has been said about the mischief arising from shoes remaining too long upon the foot, the writer observes, that it matters not how long a jointed shoe re- main?, as the joints admit of the natural augmentation of circumference.

Observations. We are inclined to give the preference to this, over every mode formerly suggested; for preventing the contraction of the foot of the horse; an object deemed of much importance by the Professor of the veterinary art. And it appears to us that the double jointed shoe alone, even without the bar, is a valuable discovery, inasmuch as while the shoe re- mains firmly fixed to the foot it admits of all the expansion at the heel, which is so essential for preserving the frog, or in- ternal part of the foot from inflammation, which invariably ends in contraction, or closing of the clefts of llie heels. One of the most prevalent, and at the same lime most pernicious diseases, arises from bad shoeing which contracts the foot, but this could not happen if the double jointed shoe was used. — Retrospect.

Remarks by the Editor Observer and liecord. That part of the above articl«

38

RULES FOR ASCERTAINING THE AGE OF HORSES.

relating to the length of time vvnich a shoe may remain upon the foot when construct- ed in the manner here recommended, ap- pears erroneous, for the growth of the foot forward, would in time become in- conveniently long, and the shoe being drawn forward thereby, would leave the frog too much exposed, therefore the shoe would still require moving; yet less fre- quently than where it is constructed with- out joints. The other parts of the article seem correct, in theory at least, and is one of the cases which can be easily test- ed by practice.

RULES FOR ASCERTAINING THE AGE OF HORSES, BY INSPECTING OF THEIR TEETH.

By F. G. (Farmers Magazine, No. 54.)

The rules given in the narrative are compressed into the following recapitula- tion:— xfit from 2i to 3 years old, a horse sheds in both rows the two centre teeth and is then said to be a three year old. ^t from 3h to 4 years, he loses other four teeth, one on each side of those he lost the preceding year, both in the upper and under-jaw, having the four out- side, or corner teeth remaining; he is now called a four year old. Jit from A\ to 5 years, the four corner foal teeth are cast, and then he parses for a five year old; at full five ycar.s the flesh disappears and the corner teeth become complete shells, hollow within, and the tusks have pierced the gum, and their points may be felt with the finger. ./^/ from 5h. to 6 years, the tusks become of a moderate size, sharp, the inside fluted, and the edge next the gatherers thin, he is now called six years old, wliich is the most valuable age. Jit from G to S years, all the gath- erers are full having only a brown speck on the top, the corner teeth have become much thicker, and the tusks longer, but as the speck remains with many horses for several years after, a person who is not a judge, will be told that the horse is not more than six years old. At 8 /o 10 years and upwards; at eight the bean being generally worn out from the teeth of the under-jaw, the upper jaw may be examined; at nine the speck of the centre; at nine and a half, that of the middle; and at ten, that of the corner teeth is eflfaced, then the horse is said to be aged, and to

have lost all mark. The age may no long- er be distinctly known from the teeth, but a probable conjecture may be formed from the length of the tusks.

Observations. Since there is no part of the farmers stock more expensive, nor any in which he is more subjected to im- position, than horses, we trust we shall stand excused by the more intelligent part of the agricultural public, for noticing this paper, in order to convey the information it contains to the young and more inex- perienced reader, who will the easier un- derstand the subject, from its being eluci- dated systematically. — Retrospect.

ON PLANTING AND REARING THORN

HEDGES.

By Win. Alton, Farmers Magazine, No. 54.

Thorn hedges are represented to be of all other fences, the cheapest, most beau- tiful, most durable, and most valuable yet known, and that no other ought to be formed, where these can be made to grow; and that it is not the richness of the soil, but its quality, for retaining moisture, and the manner in which the dykes are form- ed, and kept, that govern the growth of these hedges. The whole art of raising white thorn into fence, is said to lie in placing them within the reach of a due supply of moisture, the benefit of the sun and weather, and in keeping them Irom being overgrown with weeds; the luxu- riance of their growth depending on their obtaining more moisture than is required for the generality of trees and shrubs, and the stuntedness of hedges, in nine cases out often, proceeding from the want of a due supply of moisture. Whenever a thorn fence is attempted to be raised on a dry or a sandy soil, the trench should be opened on the lower side, and the dyke reared on the rising ground, that when rains fall, the moisture may run to the root of the thorns; while if the trench be formed on the higher ground, it would intercept and carry off the water; and whenever a thorn hedge is planted on a dry sandy soil, the thorns ought to be placed low in the dyke; and great pains taken to keep them free from weeds. When thorns are plant- ed in a dyke formed of sterile moss, they are found to grow as well for two or three years, as if planted in rich mould, but

ON PLANTING AND REARING THORN HEDGES.

39

whenever the moss is divested of mois- ture, they become stunted and soon die, unless means are taken to supply that ne- cessary nourishment.

In order to make a fence at once suffi- cient to turn cattle, the author directs that a trench five or six feet wide, and three or four feet deep, be dug, and not only the earth taken from it^ but a considerable quantity of turf dug up on the other side, and the whole formed into a dyke several feet high, tapering narrow at the top; and the thorns, have a sufficient degree of moisture, for a long time after they are put in, but as the dyke is raised high, the water will not run to the roots, unless there be a trench at the back part, which should be kept open five, or six years, . and sometimes this proves ineffectual. It is .recommended therefore to make but a moderate trench in front of the dyke, and not lo raise the top of the dyke too high, to exclude the sun from the roots of the thorns; and though this may require ad- ditional fencing to guard it at first, yet it will] become much the more secure fence in the course of years.

The notion of thorns or any other plant being killed when their roots reach the cold sub-soil, is treated as a mere conceit; since nature has taught plants where to strike their roots in search of the most nutricious food, and if every plant died when its roots reached the sterile sub-soil, none would be found alive after a few years. But it is not in clay soils says Mr. Alton, or where the sub-soil is a cold clay, that thorns die soonest: but that happens much more frequently in dry sandy, or gravelly soil, or in dry rocky parts, where there is no cold soil of clay within reach of the roots; and the failures in growth which are supposed to proceed from the roots reaching a cold sub-soil, proceed nine times out often from want of mois- ture.

It is also noticed thai hedges are seldom dressed in a proper shape, being either permitted to rise like trees, and their bushy tops to overshadow and kill the smaller branches near the roots, or else having the lower branches lopped off, in order to straighten the hedge, while the tops are allowed to remain. To prevent this, it is directed that the hedge after it rises three or four feet high, be kept, thin

at top in form of a wedge and the lateral twigs allowed to spread out near the ground, to the breadth of eighteen inches or two feet, and the hedge tapered on both sides. And when this is done, the heat, light dews, and rains fall upon the parts of the hedge equally, and the thorns grow as close at the root as at the top.

Observations. These remarks may ap- pear trivial to some of our readers, but many thorn hedges have failed for want of proper attention to the planting and rearing them. And it is an important part of agriculture, to obtain fences at once fully adequate for the separation of cattle, and affording shelter from storms. — Re- trospect.

Remarks of the Editor Observer and Record. If the white thorn require more mois- ture than other plants, or if all kinds of plants employed in forming live fences require more than what falls in rain im- mediately around them, (and I have no reason to doubt it) a question arises what is the hQsi general method to furnish a supply necessary for the hedge at all times. It is suggested that a trench be excavated two feet wide, and two feet deep, and that one half of tliis trench be filled with the upper half of earth that has been re- moved in forming it, (where this is a grass sod, let it be reversed) the operation may be performed in the following man- ner; first dig the earth from the trench for any convenient distance, say three feet, and throw it upon the bank; then dig the upper half of the next three feet; and throw it into the bottom of the part first formed, with the top reversed, which will bury such seeds and grass as may be at the surface so deep as to prevent them in some degree from growing and thereby injuring the young hedge, in this way proceed in preparing the ground the whole distance for the intended hedge; the lower half of earth removed from the trencli, may be deposited where most con- venient, so as not to interfere with future cultivation. The young plants from the nursery are to be planted in a row at the middle of the trench, and cultivated with a hoe. The land upon each side of the hedge while in cultivation during the time

40

SILK MANUrACTURE.

the hedge is advancing towards maturity, may be turned by the plough from tiie hedge to the distance of fifteen or twenty feet, or to any required distance to bring enough water to the liedgc, by its descent in that direction. The surface of earth for the distance of a foot on each side of the hedge may be raised five or six inches dur- ing that time, by adding a little vegetable mould each year. The land here is sup- posed to be perfectly level; where it is otherwise, the water may be collected from a considerable distance, and retained about the hedge by an embankment or dyke parallel with the hedge and in other directions as the declivity of the ground may require.

SILK MANUFACTURE. (Continued froui p. 19.)

The ends thus joined into two or three threads, are passed into the holes of three iron rods in the fore part of the reel, then wpon the bobbins or pulleys, and at last, are drawn out to the reel itself, and there fastened, each to an end of an arm or branch of the reel. Thus disposed, the winder, giving motion to the reel by turn- ing the handle, guides the threads, substi- tutes new ones, when any of them break, or any of the balls are [wound out; strengthens them where necessary'', b}^ ad- ding others, and takes away the balls wound out, or that having been pierced, are full of water.

In this manner, two persons will spin and reel three jiounds of silk in a day, which is done with greater despatch than is made by the spinning wheel or distaff. Indeed, all silks cannot be spun and reeled after this manner; either because the balls have been perforated by the silk-worms themselves, or because tliey are double, or too weak to bear the water, or because they are coarse, &c. — Of all these togeth- er they make a particular kind of "silk, called floretta; which being carded, or ev- en spun on the distaff, or the wheel, in the condition it comes from the ball, makes a tolerable silk. As to the balls, after opening them with scissors and taking out the insects, (which are of some use for the feeding of poultry,) they are steeped three or four days in troughs, the water of which is changed every day to prevent putrefaction. When they are well soft-

ened by this scouring, and cleared of that gummy matter; the worm had lined the inside with, and which renders it im- penetrable to the water, and even to air itself, they boil them half an hour in a ley of ashes, very clear and well strained; and after washing them out in river or running water, and drying them in the sun, they card and spin them on the wheel (^'C, and thus make another kind of floret- ta, somewhat inferior to the former.

As to the spinning and reeling of raw silks off the balls, such as they are brought from Italy and the Levant the first is chiefly performed on the spinning wheel, and the latter either on hand reels, or on reels mounted on machines which serve to reel several skeins at the same time. As to the milling, they use a mill composed of several pieces, which may mill two or three hundred bobbins at once, and make them into as many skeins. For dying of silk, see p. 19.

DEFINITION OF TERMS.

Beghuiing with the. letter Ji.

Jicetic tdcicl, Differs from acetous acid, by having a larger proportion of oxygen.

Jicetate of Potash. This salt occurs native in thesap and some other vegetable juices.

Jicetous Acid, is obtained from vin- egar by distillation.

Jicetum Rosatum. Vinegar of roses, is produced by rose-buds infused in vinegar five or six weeks, the roses are then pres- sed out, and the vinegar preserved, it is used in cases of head-ache.

Jlceluyn Prophylacticum, Is a prepa- ration of acetic acid, camphor, flower of lavender, 4*c. It is called also the F'in- egar of the four thieves, who during the plague at Marseilles, plundered the sick, the dying, and the dead, and escaped un- hurt b}?- the use of this preparation.

Acids, Possess the following properties (among others. ) They change the blue colours of vegtables to red. The vegeta- ble blues employed for this purpose are generally tincture of litmus, and syrup of violets or radishes, which have obtained the name of reagents or tests. If these colours have been previously converted into green by alkalies, the acids restore them again.

Scidifiahlc base or radical. Is any sub-

DEFINITION OF TERMS.

41

stance whether simple or compound, that is capable of uniting without decomposi- tion, with such a quantity of oxygen, as to become possessed of acid properties. Al- most all the acids agree with each other in containing oxygen, but they differ in their radicals; of course the acidifiable base or radical determines the species of acid.

Sulphur combined with oxygen, forms sulphuric or vitriolic acid.

Almost all substances will combine